Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-4rdpn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-17T18:22:00.379Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Past Life Experiences and Neurological Recovery: The Role of Cognitive Reserve in the Rehabilitation of Severe Post-Anoxic Encephalopathy and Traumatic Brain Injury

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 November 2019

Arianna Menardi Open the ORCID record for Arianna Menardi [Opens in a new window] ,
Giannettore Bertagnoni ,
Giuseppe Sartori ,
Massimiliano Pastore  and
Sara Mondini
Arianna Menardi
Affiliation:
Department of Neuroscience, Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Via Giuseppe Orus, 35131 Padova, PD, Italy
Giannettore Bertagnoni
Affiliation:
Division of Physical and Rehabilitative Medicine of the San Bortolo Hospital, Viale Ferdinando Rodolfi, 37, 36100 Vicenza, VI, Italy
Giuseppe Sartori
Affiliation:
Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Via Venezia, 8, 35131 Padova, PD, Italy Human Inspired Research Centre, University of Padova, Via Luzzatti, 4, 35122 Padova, PD, Italy
Massimiliano Pastore
Affiliation:
Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Via Venezia, 8, 35131 Padova, PD, Italy
Sara Mondini*
Affiliation:
Human Inspired Research Centre, University of Padova, Via Luzzatti, 4, 35122 Padova, PD, Italy FI.S.P.P.A. Department, University of Padova, Via Venezia 14, 35131 Padova, PD, Italy
*
*Correspondence and reprint requests to: Sara Mondini, FI.S.P.P.A. Department, University of Padova, Via Venezia 14, 35121 Padova, PD, Italy. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Objective:

Patients with an equivalent clinical background may show unexpected interindividual differences in their outcome. The cognitive reserve (CR) model has been proposed to account for such discrepancies, but its role after acquired severe injuries is still being debated. We hypothesize that inappropriate investigative methods might have been used when dealing with severe patients, which have very likely reduced the possibility of observing meaningful influences in recovery from severe traumas.

Methods:

To overcome this issue, the potential neuroprotective role of CR was investigated, considering a wider spectrum of clinical symptoms ranging from low-level brain stem functions necessary for life to more complex motor and cognitive skills. In the present study, data from 50 severe patients, 20 suffering from post-anoxic encephalopathy (PAE) and 30 with traumatic brain injury (TBI), were collected and retrospectively analyzed.

Results:

We found that CR, diagnosis, time of hospitalization, and their interaction had an effect on the clinical indexes. When the predictive power of CR was investigated by means of two machine learning classifier algorithms, CR, together with age, emerged as the strongest factor in discriminating between patients who reached or did not reach successful recovery.

Conclusions:

Overall, the present study highlights a possible role of CR in shaping the recovery of severe patients suffering from either PAE or TBI. The practical implications underlying the need to routinely considered CR in the clinical practice are discussed.

Keywords

Cognitive reserveBrain reserveTraumatic brain injuryPost-anoxic encephalopathyFunctional recoveryRehabilitation
Type
Regular Research
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 26 , Issue 4 , April 2020 , pp. 394 - 406
Copyright
Copyright © INS. Published by Cambridge University Press, 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Auer, R.N. & Benveniste, H. (1997). Hypoxia and related conditions. In Graham, D.I., Lantos, P.L. (Eds.), Greenfield’s neuropathology (6th ed., pp. 263–314). New York: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/b13319Google Scholar
Barulli, D. & Stern, Y. (2013). Efficiency, capacity, compensation, maintenance, plasticity: Emerging concepts in cognitive reserve. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(10), 502–509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.08.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bennett, D.A., Wilson, R.S., Schneider, J.A., Evans, D.A., de Leon, C.F.M., Arnold, S.E., Barnes, L.L., & Bienias, J.L. (2003). Education modifies the relation of AD pathology to level of cognitive function in older persons. Neurology, 60(12), 1909–1915. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.WNL.0000069923.64550.9FCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bittner, R.M. & Crowe, S.F. (2009). The relationship between working memory, processing speed, verbal comprehension and FAS performance following traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 21(7), 709–719. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699050701468917CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breiman, L. (2001). Random forests. Machine Learning, 45(1), 5–32. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010933404324CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cabeza, R., Albert, M., Belleville, S., Craik, F.I.M., Duarte, A., Grady, C.L., Duarte, A., Lindenberger, U, Nyberg, L, Park, D.C., Rugg, M.D., Reuter-Lorenz, P.A., Steffener, J., & Rajah, M.N. (2018). Maintenance, reserve and compensation: The cognitive neuroscience of healthy ageing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 19(11), 701–710. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-018-0068-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Devita, M., Mondini, S., Bordignon, A., Sergi, G., Girardi, A., Manzato, E., Mapelli, D., & Coin, A. (2019). The importance of cognitive reserve in comprehensive geriatric assessment for dementia. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40520-019-01285-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Facal, D., Valladares-Rodriguez, S., Lojo-Seoane, C., Pereiro, A.X., Anido-Rifon, L., & Juncos-Rabadán, O. (2019). Machine learning approaches to studying the role of cognitive reserve in conversion from mild cognitive impairment to dementia. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 34(7), 941–949. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.5090CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fortune, D.G., Walsh, S.R., & Richards, H.L. (2016). Cognitive reserve and preinjury educational attainment: Effects on outcome of community-based rehabilitation for longer-term individuals with acquired brain injury. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 39(3), 234–239. https://doi.org/10.1097/MRR.0000000000000175CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Granger, C.V., Hamilton, B.B., Keith, R.A., Zielezny, M., & Sherwin, F.S. (1986). Advances in functional assessment for medical rehabilitation. Topics in Geriatric Rehabilitation, 1(3), 59–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, R.E., Colella, B., Christensen, B., Johns, K., Frasca, D., Bayley, M., & Monette, G. (2008). Examining moderators of cognitive recovery trajectories after moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 89(12), S16–S24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2008.09.551CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hagen, C., Malkmus, D., & Durham, P. (1972). Levels of cognitive functioning. Downey, CA: Rancho Los Amigos Hospital.Google Scholar
Hajian-Tilaki, K. (2013). Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve analysis for medical diagnostic test evaluation. Caspian Journal of Internal Medicine, 4(2), 627.Google ScholarPubMed
Hall, K.M., Bushnik, T., Lakisic-Kazazic, B., Wright, J., & Cantagallo, A. (2001). Assessing traumatic brain injury outcome measures for long-term follow-up of community-based individuals. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 82(3), 367–374. https://doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2001.21525CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jeon, I.-C., Kim, O.-L., Kim, M.-S., Kim, S.-H., Chang, C.-H., & Bai, D.-S. (2008). The effect of premorbid demographic factors on the recovery of neurocognitive function in traumatic brain injury patients. Journal of Korean Neurosurgical Society, 44(5), 295. https://doi.org/10.3340/jkns.2008.44.5.295CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R.N., Manly, J., Glymour, M.M., Rentz, D.M., Jefferson, A.L., & Stern, Y. (2011). Conceptual and measurement challenges in research on cognitive reserve. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17(4), 593–601. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617710001748CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katzman, R., Terry, R., DeTeresa, R., Brown, T., Davies, P., Fuld, P., Renbing, X., & Peck, A. (1988). Clinical, pathological, and neurochemical changes in dementia: A subgroup with preserved mental status and numerous neocortical plaques. Annals of Neurology, 23(2), 138–144. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.410230206CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kesler, S.R., Adams, H.F., Blasey, C.M., & Bigler, E.D. (2003). Premorbid intellectual functioning, education, and brain size in traumatic brain injury: An investigation of the cognitive reserve hypothesis. Applied Neuropsychology, 10(3), 153–162. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324826AN1003_04CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landwehr, N., Hall, M., & Frank, E. (2003). Logistic model trees. In Proceedings of 14th European Conference on Machine Learning. (pp. 241–252). Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Landwehr, N., Hall, M., & Frank, E. (2005). Logistic model trees. Machine Learning, 59(1–2), 161–205. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10994-005-0466-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Le Carret, N., Auriacombe, S., Letenneur, L., Bergua, V., Dartigues, J.-F., & Fabrigoule, C. (2005). Influence of education on the pattern of cognitive deterioration in AD patients: The cognitive reserve hypothesis. Brain and Cognition, 57(2), 120–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2004.08.031CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lim, C., Alexander, M.P., LaFleche, G., Schnyer, D.M., & Verfaellie, M. (2004). The neurological and cognitive sequelae of cardiac arrest. Neurology, 63(10), 1774–1778. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.WNL.0000144189.83077.8ECrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahoney, R.I. (1965). Functional evaluation: The Barthel Index. Maryland State Medical Journal, 14, 61–65.Google ScholarPubMed
Nucci, M., Mapelli, D., & Mondini, S. (2012). Cognitive reserve index questionnaire (CRIq): A new instrument for measuring cognitive reserve. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 24(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.3275/7800Google ScholarPubMed
Nunnari, D., Bramanti, P., & Marino, S. (2014). Cognitive reserve in stroke and traumatic brain injury patients. Neurological Sciences, 35(10), 1513–1518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-014-1897-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poletti, M., Emre, M., & Bonuccelli, U. (2011). Mild cognitive impairment and cognitive reserve in Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 17(8), 579–586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2011.03.013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
R Core Team. (2016). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Retrieved from https://www.R-project.org/Google Scholar
Rappaport, M., Hall, K.M., Hopkins, K., Belleza, T., & Cope, D.N. (1982). Disability rating scale for severe head trauma: Coma to community. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 63(3), 118–123.Google Scholar
Roe, C.M., Mintun, M.A., D’Angelo, G., Xiong, C., Grant, E.A., & Morris, J.C. (2008). Alzheimer Disease and cognitive reserve: Variation of education effect with carbon 11–labeled Pittsburgh compound B uptake. Archives of Neurology, 65(11), 1467–1471. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneur.65.11.1467CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ropacki, M.T. & Elias, J.W. (2003). Preliminary examination of cognitive reserve theory in closed head injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 18(6), 643–654. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/18.6.643CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Satz, P. (1993). Brain reserve capacity on symptom onset after brain injury: A formulation and review of evidence for threshold theory. Neuropsychology, 7(3), 273–295. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.7.3.273CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scarmeas, N., Levy, G., Tang, M.-X., Manly, J., & Stern, Y. (2001). Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology, 57(12), 2236–2242. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.57.12.2236CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, E.B., Sur, S., Raymont, V., Duckworth, J., Kowalski, R.G., Efron, D.T., Hui, X., Selvarajah, S., Hambridge, H.L., & Stevens, R.D. (2014). Functional recovery after moderate/severe traumatic brain injury: A role for cognitive reserve? Neurology, 82(18), 1636–1642. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000000379CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snowdon, D.A. (2003). Healthy aging and dementia: Findings from the nun study. Annals of Internal Medicine, 139(5_Part_2), 450. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-139-5_Part_2-200309021-00014CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8(3), 448–460. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617702813248CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (2006). Cognitive reserve and Alzheimer Disease. Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders, 20, S69–S74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (2009). Cognitive reserve. Neuropsychologia, 47(10), 2015–2028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sumowski, J.F., Chiaravalloti, N., & DeLuca, J. (2009). Cognitive reserve protects against cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 31(8), 913–926. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390902740643CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sumowski, J.F., Chiaravalloti, N., Krch, D., Paxton, J., & DeLuca, J. (2013). Education attenuates the negative impact of traumatic brain injury on cognitive status. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 94(12), 2562–2564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2013.07.023CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teasdale, G. & Jennett, B. (1974). Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness: A practical scale. The Lancet, 304(7872), 81–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(74)91639-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tucker-Drob, E.M., Johnson, K.E., & Jones, R.N. (2009). The cognitive reserve hypothesis: A longitudinal examination of age-associated declines in reasoning and processing speed. Developmental Psychology, 45(2), 431–446. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Baalen, B., Odding, E., Maas, A.I.R., Ribbers, G.M., Bergen, M.P., & Stam, H.J. (2003). Traumatic brain injury: Classification of initial severity and determination of functional outcome. Disability and Rehabilitation, 25(1), 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/dre.25.1.9.18CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitlock, J.A. (1992). Functional outcome of low-level traumatically brain-injured admitted to an acute rehabilitation programme. Brain Injury, 6(5), 447–459. https://doi.org/10.3109/02699059209008140CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitlock, J.A. & Hamilton, B.B. (1995). Functional outcome after rehabilitation for severe traumatic brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 76(12), 1103–1112. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-9993(95)80117-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Witten, I.H., Frank, E., Hall, M.A., & Pal, C.J. (2016). Data mining: Practical machine learning tools and techniques. Cambridge, MA: Morgan Kaufmann.Google Scholar