Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T06:55:18.790Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Effects of Bilingualism on Verbal and Nonverbal Memory Measures in Mild Cognitive Impairment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 October 2018

Mónica Rosselli ,
David A. Loewenstein ,
Rosie E. Curiel ,
Ailyn Penate ,
Valeria L. Torres ,
Merike Lang ,
Maria T. Greig ,
William W. Barker  and
Ranjan Duara
Mónica Rosselli*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, Davie, Florida 1Florida Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Miami Beach, Florida
David A. Loewenstein
Affiliation:
1Florida Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Miami Beach, Florida Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Center on Aging, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, Florida
Rosie E. Curiel
Affiliation:
1Florida Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Miami Beach, Florida Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Center on Aging, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, Florida
Ailyn Penate
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Center on Aging, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, Florida Wien Center for Alzheimer’s Disease and Memory Disorders, Mount Sinai Medical Center, Miami Beach, Florida
Valeria L. Torres
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, Davie, Florida
Merike Lang
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, Davie, Florida
Maria T. Greig
Affiliation:
1Florida Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Miami Beach, Florida Wien Center for Alzheimer’s Disease and Memory Disorders, Mount Sinai Medical Center, Miami Beach, Florida
William W. Barker
Affiliation:
1Florida Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Miami Beach, Florida Wien Center for Alzheimer’s Disease and Memory Disorders, Mount Sinai Medical Center, Miami Beach, Florida
Ranjan Duara
Affiliation:
1Florida Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Miami Beach, Florida Wien Center for Alzheimer’s Disease and Memory Disorders, Mount Sinai Medical Center, Miami Beach, Florida
*
Correspondence and reprint requests to: Mónica Rosselli, Department of Psychology, Charles E. Schmidt College of Science, Florida Atlantic University, 3200 College Ave, Davie, FL 33314. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Objectives: Maintaining two active languages may increase cognitive and brain reserve among bilingual individuals. We explored whether such a neuroprotective effect was manifested in the performance of memory tests for participants with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI). Methods: We compared 42 bilinguals to 25 monolinguals on verbal and nonverbal memory tests. We used: (a) the Loewenstein-Acevedo Scales for Semantic Interference and Learning (LASSI-L), a sensitive test that taps into proactive, retroactive, and recovery from proactive semantic interference (verbal memory), and (b) the Benson Figure delayed recall (nonverbal memory). A subsample had volumetric MRI scans. Results: The bilingual group significantly outperformed the monolingual group on two LASSI-L cued recall measures (Cued A2 and Cued B2). A measure of maximum learning (Cued A2) showed a correlation with the volume of the left hippocampus in the bilingual group only. Cued B2 recall (sensitive to recovery from proactive semantic interference) was correlated with the volume of the hippocampus and the entorhinal cortex of both cerebral hemispheres in the bilingual group, as well as with the left and right hippocampus in the monolingual group. The memory advantage in bilinguals on these measures was associated with higher inhibitory control as measured by the Stroop Color-Word test. Conclusions: Our results demonstrated a superior performance of aMCI bilinguals over aMCI monolinguals on selected verbal memory tasks. This advantage was not observed in nonverbal memory. Superior memory performance of bilinguals over monolinguals suggests that bilinguals develop a different and perhaps more efficient semantic association system that influences verbal recall. (JINS, 2019, 25, 15–28)

Keywords

Proactive interferenceBilingualismSpanishAlzheimer’sMCIHispanics/LatinosMemory
Type
Regular Research
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 25 , Issue 1 , January 2019 , pp. 15 - 28
Copyright
Copyright © The International Neuropsychological Society 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abutalebi, J., & Green, D. (2007). Bilingual language production: The neurocognition of language representation and control. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20(3), 242–275. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroling.2006.10.003 Google Scholar
Alladi, S., Bak, T.H., Duggirala, V., Surampudi, B., Shailaja, M., Shukla, A.K., Kaul, S. (2013). Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia, independent of education and immigration status. Neurology, 81(22), 1938–1944. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000436620.33155.a4 Google Scholar
Antón-Méndez, I., & Gollan, T.H. (2010). Not just semantics: Strong frequency and weak cognate effects on semantic association in bilinguals. Memory & Cognition, 38(6), 723–739. doi:10.3758/MC.38.6.723 Google Scholar
Ardila, A. (2007). Bilingualism in the contemporary world. In A. Ardila & E. Ramos (Eds.), Speech and language disorders in bilinguals (pp. 1–20). New York: Nova Science.Google Scholar
Bak, T.H., Nissan, J.J., Allerhand, M.M., & Deary, I.J. (2014). Does bilingualism influence cognitive aging? Annals of Neurology, 75(6), 959–963. doi:10.1002/ana.24158 Google Scholar
Bak, T.H., Vega-Mendoza, M., & Sorace, A. (2014). Never too late? An advantage on tests of auditory attention extends to late bilinguals. Frontiers in Psychology, 5(485), 1–6. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00485 Google Scholar
Barulli, D., & Stern, Y. (2013). Efficiency, capacity, compensation, maintenance, plasticity: Emerging concepts in cognitive reserve. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(10), 502–509. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2013.08.012 Google Scholar
Beekly, D.L., Ramos, E.M., Lee, W.W., Deitrich, W.D., Jacka, M.E., Wu, J., Raskind, M. (2007). The National Alzheimer’s Coordinating Center (NACC) database: The uniform data set. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 21(3), 249–258. doi:10.1097/WAD.0b013e318142774e Google Scholar
Benedict, R.H.B., Schretlen, D., Groninger, L., & Brandt, J. (1998). Hopkins verbal learning test – Revised: Normative data and analysis of inter-form and test-retest reliability. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 12(1), 43–55. doi:10.1076/clin.12.1.43.1726 Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F.I., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: Evidence from the Simon task. Psychology and Aging, 19(2), 290–303. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.290 Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F.I., & Ruocco, A.C. (2006). Dual-modality monitoring in a classification task: The effects of bilingualism and ageing. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59(11), 1968–1983. doi:10.1080/17470210500482955 Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F.I., & Ryan, J. (2006). Executive control in a modified antisaccade task: Effects of aging and bilingualism. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 32(6), 1341–1354. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.32.6.1341 Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F.I., & Freedman, M. (2007). Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia. Neuropsychologia, 45(2), 459–464. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.009 Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F., & Luk, G. (2008). Cognitive control and lexical access in younger and older bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34(4), 859–873. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.34.4.859 Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F.I., Green, D.W., & Gollan, T.H. (2009). Bilingual minds. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 10(3), 89–129. doi:10.1177/1529100610387084 Google Scholar
Bialystok, E. (2011). Reshaping the mind: The benefits of bilingualism. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65(4), 229–235. doi:10.1037/a0025406 Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F.I., Binns, M.A., Ossher, L., & Freedman, M. (2014). Effects of bilingualism on the age of onset and progression of MCI and AD: Evidence from executive function tests. Neuropsychology, 28(2), 290–304. doi:10.1037/neu0000023 Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Poarch, G.J. (2014). Language experience changes language and cognitive ability. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, 17(3), 433–446. doi:10.1007/s11618-014-0491-8 Google Scholar
Bialystok, E. (2017). The bilingual adaptation: How minds accommodate experience. Psychological Bulletin, 143, 233–262. doi:10.1037/bul0000099 Google Scholar
Borsa, V.M., Perani, D., Della Rosa, P.A., Videsott, G., Guidi, L., Weekes, B.S., Abutalebi, J. (2018). Bilingualism and healthy aging: Aging effects and neural maintenance. Neuropsychologia, 111, 51–61. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.01.012 Google Scholar
Calvo, N., García, A.M., Manoiloff, L., & Ibáñez, A. (2016). Bilingualism and cognitive reserve: A critical overview and a plea for methodological innovations. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 7(249), 1–17. doi:10.3389/fnagi.2015.00249 Google Scholar
Chertkow, H., Whitehead, V., Phillips, N., Wolfson, C., Atherton, J., & Bergman, H. (2010). Multilingualism (but not always bilingualism) delays the onset of Alzheimer disease: Evidence from a bilingual community. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 24(2), 118–125. doi:10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181ca1221 Google Scholar
Costa, A., Hernández, M., & Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2008). Bilingualism aids conflict resolution: Evidence from the ANT task. Cognition, 106(1), 59–86. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2006.12.013 Google Scholar
Costa, A., Hernández, M., Costa-Faidella, J., & Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2009). On the bilingual advantage in conflict processing: Now you see it, now you don’t. Cognition, 113(2), 135–149. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2009.08.001 Google Scholar
Crocco, E., Curiel, R.E., Acevedo, A., Czaja, S.J., & Loewenstein, D.A. (2014). An evaluation of deficits in semantic cuing and proactive and retroactive interfere as early features of Alzheimer’s disease. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 22(9), 889–897. doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2013.01.066 Google Scholar
Curiel, R.E., Crocco, E., Acevedo, A., Duara, R., Agron, J., & Loewenstein, D.A. (2013). A new scale for the evaluation of proactive and retroactive interference in mild cognitive impairment and early Alzheimer’s disease. Aging Science, 1(1), 1000102. doi:10.4172/2329-8847.1000102 Google Scholar
de Jager, C.A., Schrijnemaekers, A.C.M., Honey, T.E., & Budge, M.M. (2009). Detection of MCI in the clinic: Evaluation of the sensitivity and specificity of a computerised test battery, the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test and the MMSE. Age and Ageing, 38(4), 455–460. doi:10.1093/ageing/afp068 Google Scholar
Dobbins, I.G., & Davachi, L. (2006). Functional neuroimaging of episodic memory. In: R. Cabeza & A. Kingstone (Eds.), Handbook of functional neuroimaging of cognition (pp. 229–268). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Duñabeitia, J.A., Hernández, J.A., Antón, E., Macizo, P., Estévez, A., Fuentes, L.J., & Carreiras, M. (2014). The inhibitory advantage in bilingual children revisited: Myth or reality? Experimental Psychology, 61(3), 234–251. doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000243 Google Scholar
Fischer, C.E., & Schweizer, T.A. (2014). How does speaking another language reduce the risk of dementia? Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 14(5), 469–471. doi:10.1586/14737175.2014.892831 Google Scholar
Folstein, M.F., Robins, L.N., & Helzer, J.E. (1983). The mini-mental state examination. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40(7), 812. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1983.01790060110016 Google Scholar
Francis, W.S. (2005). Bilingual semantic and conceptual representation. In: J.F. Kroll & A.M.B. De Groot (Eds.), Handbook of bilingualism: Psycholinguistic approaches (pp. 251–267). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Francis, W.S., & Strobach, E.N. (2013). The bilingual L2 advantage in recognition memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20(6), 1296–1303. doi:10.3758/s13423-013-0427-y Google Scholar
Friedman, N.P., & Miyake, A. (2004). The relations among inhibition and interference control functions: A latent-variable analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133(1), 101–135. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.101 Google Scholar
Golden, C.J. (1978). Stroop Color and Word Test. A manual for clinical and experimental use. Chicago, IL: Stoelting Co.Google Scholar
Gollan, T.H., Salmon, D.P., Montoya, R.I., & da Pena, E. (2010). Accessibility of the nondominant language in picture naming: A counterintuitive effect of dementia on bilingual language production. Neuropsychologia, 48(5), 1356–1366. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.12.038 Google Scholar
Gollan, T.H., Salmon, D.P., Montoya, R.I., & Galasko, D.R. (2011). Degree of bilingualism predicts age of diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease in low-education but not in highly educated Hispanics. Neuropsychologia, 49(14), 3826–3830. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.09.041 Google Scholar
Gollan, T.H., Weissberger, G.H., Runnqvist, E., Montoya, R.I., & Cera, C.M. (2012). Self-ratings of spoken language dominance: A Multilingual Naming Test (MINT) and preliminary norms for young and aging Spanish–English bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15(3), 594–615. doi:10.1017/S1366728911000332 Google Scholar
Grant, A., Dennis, N.A., & Li, P. (2014). Cognitive control, cognitive reserve, and memory in the aging bilingual brain. Frontiers in Psychology, 5(1401), 1–10. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01401 Google Scholar
Green, D.W., & Abutalebi, J. (2013). Language control in bilinguals: The adaptive control hypothesis. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 515–530. doi:10.1080/20445911.2013.796377 Google Scholar
Harris, P.A., Scott, K.W., Lebo, L., Hassan, N., Lighter, C., & Pulley, J. (2012). ResearchMatch: A national registry to recruit volunteers for clinical research. Academic Medicine, 66–73. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e31823ab7d2 Google Scholar
Helzner, E.P., Scarmeas, N., Cosentino, S., Portet, F., & Stern, Y. (2007). Leisure activity and cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer disease. Archives of Neurology, 64(12), 1749–1754. doi:10.1001/archneur.64.12.1749 Google Scholar
Hernández, M., Costa, A., Fuentes, L.J., Vivas, A.B., & Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2010). The impact of bilingualism on the executive control and orienting networks of attention. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13(3), 315–325. doi:10.1017/S1366728909990010 Google Scholar
Hilchey, M.D., & Klein, R.M. (2011). Are there bilingual advantages on nonlinguistic interference tasks? Implications for the plasticity of executive control processes. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18(4), 625–658. doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0116-7 Google Scholar
Kaushanskaya, M., & Marian, V. (2009). The bilingual advantage in novel word learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16(4), 705–710. doi:10.3758/PBR.16.4.705 Google Scholar
Kavé, G., Eyal, N., Shorek, A., & Cohen-Mansfield, J. (2008). Multilingualism and cognitive state in the oldest old. Psychology and Aging, 23(1), 70–78. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.23.1.70 Google Scholar
Kerrigan, L., Thomas, M.S., Bright, P., & Filippi, R. (2017). Evidence of an advantage in visuo-spatial memory for bilingual compared to monolingual speakers. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 20(3), 602–612. doi:10.1017/S1366728915000917 Google Scholar
Kleinman, D., Runnqvist, E., & Ferreira, V.S. (2015). Single-word predictions of upcoming language during comprehension: Evidence from the cumulative semantic interference task. Cognitive Psychology, 79, 68–101. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2015.04.001 Google Scholar
Kowoll, M.E., Degen, C., Gladis, S., & Schröder, J. (2015). Neuropsychological profiles and verbal abilities in lifelong bilinguals with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 45(4), 1257–1268. doi:10.3233/JAD-142880 Google Scholar
Kroll, J.F., Dussias, P.E., Bogulski, C.A., & Valdés Kroff, J.R. (2012). Juggling two languages in one mind: What bilinguals tell us about language processing and its consequences for cognition. In B.H. Ross (Ed.), Psychology of learning and motivation (1st ed., Vol 56, pp. 229–262). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kroll, J.F., Bobb, S.C., & Hoshino, N. (2014). Two languages in mind: Bilingualism as a tool to investigate language, cognition, and the brain. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(3), 159–163. doi:10.1177/0963721414528511 Google Scholar
Lawton, D.M., Gasquoine, P.G., & Weimer, A.A. (2015). Age of dementia diagnosis in community dwelling bilingual and monolingual Hispanic Americans. Cortex, 66, 141–145. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2014.11.017 Google Scholar
Ljungberg, J.K., Hansson, P., Andrés, P., Josefsson, M., & Nilsson, L.G. (2013). A longitudinal study of memory advantages in bilinguals. PLoS One, 8(9), e73029. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073029 Google Scholar
Loewenstein, D.A., Curiel, R.E., Greig, M.T., Bauer, R.M., Rosado, M., Bowers, D., Duara, R. (2016). A novel cognitive stress test for the detection of preclinical Alzheimer disease: Discriminative properties and relation to amyloid load. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 24(10), 804–813. doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2016.02.056 Google Scholar
Loewenstein, D.A., Curiel, R.E., Wright, C., Sun, X., Alperin, N., Crocco, E., Duara, R. (2017). Recovery from proactive semantic interference in mild cognitive impairment and normal aging: Relationship to atrophy in brain regions vulnerable to Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 56(3), 1119–1126. doi:10.3233/JAD-160881 Google Scholar
Loewenstein, D.A., Curiel, R.E., DeKosky, S., Rosselli, M., Bauer, R., Grieg-Custo, M., Duara, R. (2017). Recovery from proactive semantic interference and MRI volume: A replication and extension study. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 59(1), 131–139. doi:10.3233/JAD-170276 Google Scholar
Loewenstein, D.A., Curiel, R.E., Duara, R., & Buschke, H. (2018). Novel cognitive paradigms for the detection of memory impairment in preclinical Alzheimer’s disease. Assessment, 25, 348–359. doi:10.1177/1073191117691608 Google Scholar
Luk, G., DeSa, E. Sa, E., & Bialystok, E. (2011). Is there a relation between onset age of bilingualism and enhancement of cognitive control? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 14(4), 588–595. doi:10.1017/S1366728911000010 Google Scholar
Luo, L., Craik, F.I., Moreno, S., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Bilingualism interacts with domain in a working memory task: Evidence from aging. Psychology and Aging, 28(1), 28–34. doi:10.1037/a0030875 Google Scholar
Marian, V., Blumenfeld, H.K., & Kaushanskaya, M. (2007). The language experience and proficiency questionnaire (LEAP-Q): Assessing language profiles in bilinguals and multilinguals. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 50(4), 940–967. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2007/067) Google Scholar
Mukadam, N., Sommerlad, A., & Livingston, G. (2017). The relationship of bilingualism compared to monolingualism to the risk of cognitive decline or dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 58(1), 45–54. doi:10.3233/JAD-170131 Google Scholar
Nasreddine, Z.S., Phillips, N.A., Bédirian, V., Charbonneau, S., Whitehead, V., Collin, I., Chertkow, H. (2005). The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: A brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(4), 695–699. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53221 Google Scholar
Navarrete, E., Del Prato, P., & Mahon, B.Z. (2012). Factors determining semantic facilitation and interference in the cyclic naming paradigm. Frontiers in Psychology, 3(38), 1–15. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00038 Google Scholar
Ossher, L., Bialystok, E., Craik, F.I., Murphy, K.J., & Troyer, A.K. (2012). The effect of bilingualism on amnestic mild cognitive impairment. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 68(1), 8–12. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbs038 Google Scholar
Paap, K.R., & Greenberg, Z.I. (2013). There is no coherent evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive processing. Cognitive Psychology, 66(2), 232–258. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2012.12.002 Google Scholar
Paap, K.R., Johnson, H.A., & Sawi, O. (2015). Bilingual advantages in executive functioning either do not exist or are restricted to very specific and undetermined circumstances. Cortex, 69, 265–278. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.04.014 Google Scholar
Pelham, S.D., & Abrams, L. (2014). Cognitive advantages and disadvantages in early and late bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40(2), 313–325. doi:10.1037/a0035224 Google Scholar
Perani, D., & Abutalebi, J. (2015). Bilingualism, dementia, cognitive and neural reserve. Current Opinion in Neurology, 28(6), 618–625. doi:10.1097/WCO.0000000000000267 Google Scholar
Perani, D., Farsad, M., Ballarini, T., Lubian, F., Malpetti, M., Fraccheti, A., Abutalebi, J. (2017). The impact of bilingualism on brain reserve and metabolic connectivity in Alzheimer’s dementia. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114(7), 1690–1695. doi:10.1073/pnas.1610909114 Google Scholar
Possin, K.L., Laluz, V.R., Alcantar, O.Z., Miller, B.L., & Kramer, J.H. (2011). Distinct neuroanatomical substrates and cognitive mechanisms of figure copy performance in Alzheimer’s disease and behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia. Neuropsychologia, 49(1), 43–48. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.10.026 Google Scholar
Ransdell, S.E., & Fischler, I. (1987). Memory in a monolingual mode: When are bilinguals at a disadvantage? Journal of Memory and Language, 26(4), 392–405. doi:10.1016/0749-596X(87)90098-2 Google Scholar
Reitan, R.M. (1986). Trail Making Test manual for administration and scoring. Tuscon, AZ: Reitan Neuropsychology Laboratory.Google Scholar
Rickard, T.C., & Pan, S.C. (2018). A dual memory theory of the testing effect. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 25, 847–869. doi:10.3758/s13423-017-1298-4 Google Scholar
Riès, S.K., Karzmark, C.R., Navarrete, E., Knight, R.T., & Dronkers, N.F. (2015). Specifying the role of the left prefrontal cortex in word selection. Brain and Language, 149, 135–147. doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2015.07.007 Google Scholar
Rodríguez-Fornells, A., Cunillera, T., Mestres-Missé, A., & de Diego-Balaguer, R. (2009). Neurophysiological mechanisms involved in language learning in adults. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 364(1536), 3711–3735. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0130 Google Scholar
Salvatierra, J., & Rosselli, M. (2010). The effect of bilingualism and age on inhibitory control. International Journal of Bilingualism, 15(1), 26–37. doi:10.1177/1367006910371021 Google Scholar
Scarmeas, N., Levy, G., Tang, M.X., Manly, J., & Stern, Y. (2001). Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology, 57(12), 2236–2242. doi:10.1212/WNL.57.12.2236 Google Scholar
Scarmeas, N., Albert, S.M., Manly, J.J., & Stern, Y. (2006). Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, & Psychiatry, 77(3), 308–316. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2005.072306 Google Scholar
Schilling, C.J., Storm, B.C., & Anderson, M.C. (2014). Examining the costs and benefits of inhibition in memory retrieval. Cognition, 133(2), 358–370. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2014.07.003 Google Scholar
Schnur, T.T., & Martin, R. (2012). Semantic picture–word interference is a postperceptual effect. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 19(2), 301–308. doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0190-x Google Scholar
Schroeder, S.R., & Marian, V. (2012). A bilingual advantage for episodic memory in older adults. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 24(5), 591–601. doi:10.1080/20445911.2012.669367 Google Scholar
Schweizer, T.A., Ware, J., Fischer, C.E., Craik, F.I., & Bialystok, E. (2012). Bilingualism as a contributor to cognitive reserve: Evidence from brain atrophy in Alzheimer’s disease. Cortex, 48(8), 991–996. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2011.04.009 Google Scholar
Stern, Y. (2009). Cognitive reserve. Neuropsychologia, 47(10), 2015–2028. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004 Google Scholar
Stern, Y., Tang, M.X., Denaro, J., & Mayeux, R. (1995). Increased risk of mortality in Alzheimer’s disease patients with more advanced educational and occupational attainment. Annals of Neurology, 37(5), 590–595. doi:10.1002/ana.410370508 Google Scholar
Stilwell, B.L., Dow, R.M., Lamers, C., & Woods, R.T. (2016). Language changes in bilingual individuals with Alzheimer’s disease. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 51(2), 113–127. doi:10.1111/1460-6984.12190 Google Scholar
Tao, L., Taft, M., & Gollan, T.H. (2015). The bilingual switching advantage: Sometimes related to bilingual proficiency, sometimes not. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 21(7), 531–544. doi:10.1017/S1355617715000521 Google Scholar
Thompson, H.E., Robson, H., Lambon Ralph, M.A., & Jefferies, E. (2015). Varieties of semantic ‘access’ deficit in Wernicke’s aphasia and semantic aphasia. Brain, 138(12), 3776–3792. doi:10.1093/brain/awv281 Google Scholar
von Bastian, C.C., Souza, A.S., & Gade, M. (2016). No evidence for bilingual cognitive advantages: A test of four hypotheses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(2), 246–258. doi:10.1037/xge0000120 Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Third Edition. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Woumans, E., Santens, P., Sieben, A., Versijpt, J.A.N., Stevens, M., & Duyck, W. (2015). Bilingualism delays clinical manifestation of Alzheimer’s disease. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(3), 568–574. doi:10.1017/S136672891400087X Google Scholar
Zahodne, L.B., Schofield, P.W., Farrell, M.T., Stern, Y., & Manly, J.J. (2014). Bilingualism does not alter cognitive decline or dementia risk among Spanish-speaking immigrants. Neuropsychology, 28(2), 238–246. doi:10.1037/neu0000014 Google Scholar