Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T00:08:29.709Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Cognitive Reserve Components as Expressed in Traumatic Brain Injury

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 April 2013

Yifat Levi ,
Yuri Rassovsky ,
Eugenia Agranov ,
Michal Sela-Kaufman  and
Eli Vakil
Yifat Levi
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
Yuri Rassovsky
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel Leslie and Susan Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)
Eugenia Agranov
Affiliation:
Sheba Medical Center, Ramat-Gan, Israel Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
Michal Sela-Kaufman
Affiliation:
Department of Behavioral Sciences, the Academic College of Tel-Aviv – Yaffo, Israel
Eli Vakil*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel Leslie and Susan Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
*
Correspondence and reprint requests to: Eli Vakil, Psychology Department of and Leslie and Susan Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 52900, Israel. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the most common cause of brain damage, resulting in long-term disability. The “reserve” construct has been proposed to account for the reported mismatch between brain damage and its clinical expression. Although numerous studies have used various measures thought to reflect this construct, few studies have examined its underlying structure in clinical populations, and no studies have systematically studied this construct in TBI. In the present study, structural equation modeling technique was used to evaluate several models hypothesized to represent cognitive reserve (CR) in TBI. A broad range of data typically reported in the literature as representing CR was collected from 89 individuals who sustained moderate-to-severe TBI. Analyses revealed a best fitting model that consisted of three separate factors representing premorbid intelligence, socioeconomic status and leisure activity, with distinct pattern of associations among the three factors. Findings provide empirical support for the notion of a multi-factorial CR and suggest a coherent framework for further investigation. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–8)

Keywords

ReserveCRTBIStructural equation modelingHead injuryRehabilitation
Type
Research Articles
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 19 , Issue 6 , July 2013 , pp. 664 - 671
Copyright
Copyright © The International Neuropsychological Society 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Bentler, P.M. (1996). EQS: Structural Equation Program Model. Los Angeles: BMDP Statistical Software.Google Scholar
Bickel, H., Cooper, B. (1994). Incidence and relative risk of dementia in an urban elderly population: Findings of a prospective field study. Psychological Medicine, 24, 179–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bigler, E.D. (2001). Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging in traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 16, 1–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bigler, E.D. (2006). Traumatic brain injury and cognitive reserve. In Y. Stern (Ed.), Cognitive reserve: Theory and applications. East Sussex: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Brosch, I., Peres, Y. (2000). Child quantity versus ‘quality’: A general dilemma in Israeli terms. Megamot, 40, 185–198 (Hebrew).Google Scholar
Carpon, C., Duyme, M. (1989). Assessment of effects of socio-economic status on IQ in a full cross-fostering study. Nature, 340, 552–554.Google Scholar
Central Bureau of Statistics (2012). Occupation and income, according to National Insurance Institute – average salary for an employee [Electronic database]. Retrieved from http://www.cbs.gov.il/ts/IDbad84f815c104b/databank/series_func_v1.html?level_1=23&level_2=4&level_3=1.Google Scholar
Dik, M.G., Deeg, D.J.H., Visser, M., Jonker, C. (2003). Early life physical activity and cognition at old age. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25, 643–653.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donders, J., Tulsky, D.S., Zhu, J. (2001). Criterion validity of new WAIS-III subtest scores after traumatic brain injury. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 7, 892–898.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duncan, G.J., Brooks-Gunn, J., Klebanov, P.K. (1994). Economic deprivation and early childhood development. Child Development, 65, 296–318.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fann, J.R., Burington, B., Leonetti, A., Jaffe, K., Katon, W.J., Thompson, R.S. (2004). Psychiatric illness following traumatic brain injury in an adult health maintenance organization population. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 53–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fratiglioni, L., Paillard-Borg, S., Winblad, B. (2004). An active and socially integrated lifestyle in late life might protect against dementia. The Lancet Neurology, 6, 343–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gollahar, K., High, W., Sherer, M., Bergloff, P., Boake, C., Young, M.E., Ivanhoe, C. (1998). Prediction of employment outcome one to three years following Traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 12, 255–263.Google Scholar
Green, R.E.A., Melo, B., Christensen, B., Ngo, L., Monette, G., Bradbury, C. (2008). Measuring premorbid IQ in traumatic brain injury: An examination of the validity of the Wechsler Test of Adult Reading (WTAR). Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 30, 163–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hauser, R.M., Sewell, W.H. (1986). Family effect in simple models of education, occupational status and earnings: Findings from the Wisconsin and Kalamazoo studies. Journal of Labor Economics, 4, S83–S115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hellawell, D.J., Taylor, R., Pentland, B. (1999). Cognitive and psychosocial outcome following moderate or severe traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 13, 489–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holman, T.B., Epperson, A. (1984). Family and leisure: A review of the literature with research recommendations. Journal of Leisure Research, 16, 277–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoofien, D., Vakil, E., Gilboa, A., Donovick, P.J., Barak, O. (2002). Comparison of the predictive power of socio-economic variables, severity of injury and age on long-term outcome of traumatic brain injury: Sample-specific variables versus factors as predictors. Brain Injury, 16, 9–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hu, L.-T., Bentler, P.M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jamshidian, M., Bentler, P.M. (1999). ML estimation of mean and covariance structures with missing data using complete data routines. Journal of Educational and behavioral Statistics, 24, 21–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kesler, S.R., Adams, H.F., Blasey, C.M., Bigler, E.D. (2003). Premorbid intellectual functioning, education and brain size in traumatic brain injury: An investigation of the cognitive reserve hypothesis. Applied Neuropsychology, 10, 153–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kraus, A. (1993). Epidemiology of head injury. In P.R. Cooper (Ed.), Head injury (3rd ed., pp. 1–25). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.Google Scholar
Kreutzer, J.S., Marwitz, J.H., Walker, W., Sander, A., Sherer, M., Bonger, J., Bushnik, T. (2003). Moderating factors in return to work and job stability after traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 18, 128–138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurtzke, J.F. (1984). Neuroepidemiology. Annals of Neurology, 16, 265–277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Langlois, J.A., Rutland-Brown, W., Wald, M.M. (2006). The epidemiology and impact of traumatic brain injury: A brief overview. Journal of Head Trauma and Rehabilitation, 21, 375–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Legendre, S.A., Stern, R.A., Solomon, D.A., Furman, F.A., Smith, K.E. (2003). The influence of cognitive reserve on memory following electroconvulsive therapy. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 15, 333–339.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lezak, M.D., Howieson, D.B., Loring, D.W. (2004). Neuropsychological assessment (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lye, T.C., Shores, E.A. (2000). Traumatic brain injury as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease: A review. Neuropsychology Review, 10, 115–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacMillan, P.J., Hart, R.P., Martelli, M.F., Zasler, N.D. (2002). Pre-injury status and adaptation following traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 16, 41–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manly, J.J., Schupf, N., Tang, M.X., Stern, Y. (2005). Cognitive decline and literacy among ethnically diverse elders. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 18, 213–217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mortimer, J.A., Snowdon, D.A., Markesbery, W.R. (2003). Head circumference, education and risk of dementia: Finding from the Nun study. Journal of Clinical and experimental Neuropsychology, 25, 671–679.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moscato, B.S., Trevisan, M., Willer, B.S. (1994). The prevalence of traumatic brain injury and cooccurring disabilities in a national household survey of adults. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 6, 134–142.Google Scholar
Murrey, G.J., Starzinski, D.T., LeBlanc, A.J. (2004). Base rates of traumatic brain injury history in adults admitted to state psychiatric hospitals: A 3-year study. Rehabilitation Psychology, 49, 259–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Center for Injury Prevention and Control (1999). Traumatic brain injury in the United States: A report to the Congress. Atlanta, GA: Center for Disease Control and Prevention.Google Scholar
Novack, T.A., Bush, B.A., Meythaler, J.M., Canupp, K. (2001). Outcome after traumatic brain injury: Pathway analysis of contributions from premorbid, injury severity, and recovery variables. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 82, 300–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richards, M., Sacker, A. (2003). Lifetime antecedents of cognitive reserve. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25, 614–624.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roe, A. (1956). The psychology of occupations. Hoboken, NJ: Willey.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ropacki, M.T., Elias, J.W. (2003). Preliminary examination of cognitive reserve theory in closed head injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 18, 643–654.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ropacki, S.A., Bert, A.A., Ropacki, M.T., Rogers, B.L., Stern, R.A. (2007). The influence of cognitive reserve on neuropsychological functioning following coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22, 73–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Russell, E.W. (1980). Fluid and crystallized intelligence: Effects of diffuse brain damage on the WAIS. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 51, 121–122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salmond, T.A., Menson, D.K., Chatfield, D.A., Pickard, J.D., Sahakian, B.J. (2006). Cognitive reserve as a resilience factor against depression after moderate/severe head injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 23, 1049–1058.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Satz, P. (1993). Brain reserve capacity on symptom onset after brain injury: A formulation and review of evidence for threshold theory. Neuropsychology, 7, 273–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Satz, P., Cole, M.A., Hardy, D.J., Rassovsky, Y. (2011). Brain and cognitive reserve: Mediator(s) and construct validity, a critique. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33, 121–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scarmeas, N., Levy, G., Tang, M.X., Manly, J., Stern, Y. (2001). Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology, 57, 2236–2242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scarmeas, N., Zarahn, E., Anderson, K.E., Habeck, C.G., Hilton, J., Flynn, J., Stern, Y. (2003). Association of life activities with cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer disease: Implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis. Archives of Neurology, 60, 359–365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmand, B., Smit, J.H., Geerlings, M.I., Lindeboom, J. (1997). The effects of intelligence on the development of dementia: A test of the brain reserve hypothesis. Psychological Medicine, 27, 1337–1344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sherer, M., Bergloff, P., High, W., Nick, T.G. (1999). Contribution of functional ratings to prediction of long-term employment outcome after traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 13, 973–981.Google ScholarPubMed
Sherer, M., Sander, A.M., Nick, T.G., High, W.M. Jr., Malec, J.F., Rosenthal, M. (2002). Early cognitive status and productivity outcome after traumatic brain injury: Findings from the TBI Model Systems. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 83, 183–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siedlecki, K.L., Stern, Y., Reuben, A., Sacco, R.L., Elkind, M.S.V., Wright, C.B. (2009). Construct validity of cognitive reserve in a multiethnic cohort: The Northern Manhattan Study. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15, 558–569.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snowdon, D.A., Ostwald, S.K., Kane, R.L. (1989). Education, survival and independence in elderly Catholic sisters. American Journal of Epidemiology, 130, 999–1012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research applications of the reserve concept. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 8, 448–460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (2006). Cognitive reserve and Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 20, 112–117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y., Albert, S., Tang, M.X., Tsai, W.Y. (1999). Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: Cognitive reserve? Neurology, 53, 1942–1947.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sumowski, J.F., Chiaravalloti, N., Wylie, G., DeLuca, J. (2009). Cognitive reserve moderates the negative effect of brain atrophy on cognitive efficiency in multiple sclerosis. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15, 606–612.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vakil, E. (2005). The effect of moderate to severe Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) on different aspects of memory: A selective review. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 27, 977–1021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Valezuela, M.J., Sachdev, P. (2007). Assessment of complex mental activity across the life span: Development of the Lifetime of Experiences Questionnaire (LEQ). Psychological Medicine, 37, 1015–1025.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Third edition. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Williamson, D.J.G., Scott, J.G., Adams, R.L. (1996). Traumatic brain injury. In R.L. Adams & O.A. Parson (Eds.), Neuropsychology for clinical practice: Etiology, assessment, and treatment of common neurological disorders (pp. 9–64). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, R.S., Mendes de Leon, C.F., Barnes, L.L., Schneider, J.A., Bienias, J.L., Evans, D.A., Bennet, D.A. (2002). Participation in cognitively stimulating activities and risk of incident Alzheimer's disease. Journal of the American Medical Association, 287, 742–748.CrossRefGoogle Scholar