Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T04:27:26.820Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Assessing cognitive outcomes in a rural African population: Development of a neuropsychological battery in Kilifi District, Kenya

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 March 2004

PENNY A. HOLDING ,
H. GERRY TAYLOR ,
SIDI D. KAZUNGU ,
THADEAUS MKALA ,
JOSEPH GONA ,
BERNARD MWAMUYE ,
LEONARD MBONANI  and
JIM STEVENSON
PENNY A. HOLDING
Affiliation:
KEMRI Centre for Geographic Medicine–Coast, P.O. Box 230, Kilifi, Kenya Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, Headington, Oxford, United Kingdom
H. GERRY TAYLOR
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University and Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital, University Hospitals of Cleveland, Cleveland, Ohio
SIDI D. KAZUNGU
Affiliation:
KEMRI Centre for Geographic Medicine–Coast, P.O. Box 230, Kilifi, Kenya
THADEAUS MKALA
Affiliation:
Educational Assessment and Resources Service, Kilifi District, Kilifi, Kenya
JOSEPH GONA
Affiliation:
Educational Assessment and Resources Service, Kilifi District, Kilifi, Kenya
BERNARD MWAMUYE
Affiliation:
Educational Assessment and Resources Service, Kilifi District, Kilifi, Kenya
LEONARD MBONANI
Affiliation:
Educational Assessment and Resources Service, Kilifi District, Kilifi, Kenya
JIM STEVENSON
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton, United Kingdom
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The ability to measure neuropsychological outcomes in a comparable manner in different cultural groups is important if studies conducted in geographically diverse regions are to advance knowledge of disease effects and moderating influences. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the application of neuropsychological test procedures developed for use in North America and Europe to children in a rural region of Kenya. Our specific aim was to determine if these methods could be adapted to a non-Western culture in a manner that would preserve test reliability and validity. Procedural modifications yielded reliable tests that were sensitive to both the sequelae of cerebral malaria and to children's social and school backgrounds. Results suggest that adaptations of existing tests can be made in such a way as to preserve their utility in measuring the cross-cultural sequelae of childhood neurological diseases. (JINS, 2004, 10, 246–260.)

Keywords

Cognitive developmentMalariaAfricaChildhood encephalopathyK-ABCNeuropsychological assessmentCross-cultural assessment
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 10 , Issue 2 , March 2004 , pp. 246 - 260
Copyright
© 2004 The International Neuropsychological Society

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Ackerman, B.P., Kogos, J.K., Youngstrom, E., Schoff, K., & Izard, C. (1999). Family instability and the problem behaviors of children from economically disadvantaged families. Developmental Psychology, 35, 258–268.Google Scholar
Anastasi, A. (1988). Psychological testing. New York: Macmillan Publishing.
Baddeley, A., Gardner, J.M., & Grantham-McGregor, S.G. (1995). Cross-cultural cognition: Developing tests for developing countries. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 9, 173–195.Google Scholar
Berninger, V.W. & Rutberg, J. (1992). Relationship of finger function to beginning writing: Application to diagnosis of writing disabilities. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 34, 198–215.Google Scholar
Boivin, M.J. (2002). Effects of early cerebral malaria on cognitive ability in Senegalese children. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23, 1–12.Google Scholar
Boivin, M.J., Chounramany, C., Giordani, B., Xaisida, S., Choulamountry, L., & Pholsena, P. (1996). Validating a cognitive ability testing protocol with Lao children for community development applications. Neuropsychology, 10, 588–599.Google Scholar
Bondi, F.S. (1992). The incidence and outcome of neurological abnormalities in childhood cerebral malaria: A long term follow-up of 62 survivors. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 86, 17–19.Google Scholar
Brewster, D.R., Kwiatkowski, D., & White, N.J. (1990). Neurological sequelae of cerebral malaria in children. Lancet, 36, 1039–1043.Google Scholar
Brislin, R.W., Lonner, W.J., & Thorndike, R.M. (1973). Cross-cultural research methods. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Brookshire, B.L., Chapman, S.B., Song, J., & Levin, H.S. (2000). Cognitive and linguistic correlates of children's discourse after closed head injury: A three-year follow-up. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6, 741–151.Google Scholar
Brown, A.L. & French, L.A. (1979). The zone of potential development: Implications for intelligence testing in the year 2000. Intelligence, 3, 255–273.Google Scholar
Budoff, M. (1987). The validity of learning potential assessment. In C.S. Lidz (Ed.), Dynamic assessment: An interactional approach to evaluating learning potential (pp. 52–81). New York: Guilford.
Cahan, S. & Cohen, N. (1989). Age versus schooling effects on intelligence development. Child Development, 60, 1239–1249.Google Scholar
Campione, J.C. (1989). Assisted assessment—a taxonomy of approaches and an outline of strengths and weaknesses. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 151–165.Google Scholar
Carlson, J.S. & Wiedl, K.H. (1979). Towards a differential testing approach: Testing the limits employing Raven's Matrices. Intelligence, 3, 323–344.Google Scholar
Carter, J.C., Murira, G.M., Ross, A., Mung'ala-Odera, V., & Newton, C.J.R.C. (2003). Speech and language sequelae of severe malaria in Kenyan children. Brain Injury, 17, 217–224.Google Scholar
Castro-Caldas, A., Miranda, P., Cavaleiro Carmo, I., Reis, A., Leote, F., Ribeiro, C., & Ducla-Soares, E. (1999). Influence of learning to read and write on the morphology of the corpus callosum. European Journal of Neurology, 6, 23–28.Google Scholar
Cazden, C.B. & John, V.P. (1971). Learning in American Indian children. In M.L. Wax, S. Diamond, & F.O. Gearing (Eds.), Anthropological perspectives on education (pp. 252–272). New York: Basic Books.
Ceci, S.J. (1991). How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A re-assessment of the evidence. Developmental Psychology, 27, 703–722.Google Scholar
Chione, D.P. & Buggie, S.E. (1993). Memory performance of African oral historians. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 1, 123–135.Google Scholar
Cole, M. & Scribner, S. (1974). Culture and thought: A psychological introduction. New York: Wiley.
Crawley, J., Smith, S., Kirkham, F., Muthinji, P., Waruiru, C., & Marsh, K. (1996). Seizures and status epilepticus in childhood cerebral malaria. Quarterly Journal of Medicine, 89, 591–597.Google Scholar
Cueto, S., Jacoby, E., & Pollitt, E. (1998). Breakfast prevents delays of attention and memory functions among nutritionally at-risk boys. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 19, 219–234.Google Scholar
Damico, J. & Oller, J.W. (1980). Pragmatic versus morphological/syntactic criteria for language referrals. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 11, 85–94.Google Scholar
Damico, J., Oller, J.W., & Storey, M. (1983). The diagnosis of language disorders in bilingual children: Surface-orientated and pragmatic criteria. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 48, 385–394.Google Scholar
Dasen, P.R. (1988). Développement psychologique et activités quotidiennes chez des enfants Africains [Psychological development and daily activities among African children]. Enfance, 41, 3–23.Google Scholar
Dash, U.N. & Das, J.P. (1984). Development of concrete operational thought and information coding in schooled and unschooled children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 2, 63–72.Google Scholar
Dennis, M., Guger, S., Roncadin, C., Barnes, M., & Schachar, R. (2001). Attentional-inhibitory control and social-behavioral regulation after childhood closed head injury: Do biological, developmental, and recovery variables predict outcome? Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 7, 83–692.Google Scholar
Detterman, D.K. (1988). Cognitive abilities tests. Unpublished manuscript. Case Western Reserve University: Cleveland, OH.
Detterman, D.K. & Thompson, L. (1997). What is so special about special education? American Psychologist, 52, 1082–1090.Google Scholar
Dougbartey, A.T., Spellacy, F.J., & Dougbartey, M.T. (1998). Somatosensory discrimination deficits following pediatric cerebral malaria. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 59, 393–396.Google Scholar
Dunn, L.M. & Dunn, L.M. (1981). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Revised). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
Durojaiye, M.O.A. (1993). Indigenous psychology in Africa: The search for meaning. In K. Uichol & J.W. Berry (Eds.), Indigenous psychologies: Research and experience in cultural context (pp. 211–220). Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
Elliot, C., Murray, D.J., & Pearson, L.S. (1983). British Ability Scales Revised. Windsor, UK: N.F.E.R.
Fagan, J.F. (2000). A theory of intelligence as processing: implications for society. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 6, 168–179.Google Scholar
Fletcher, J.M., Taylor, H.G., Levin, H.S., & Satz, P. (1995). Neuropsychological and intellectual assessment of children. In H.I. Kaplan & B.J. Saddock (Eds.), Comprehensive textbook of psychiatry, Vol. 1 (6th ed., pp. 581–601). Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.
Frisby, C.L. (1998). Culture and cultural differences. In J. Sandoval, C. Frisby, K.F. Geisinger, J.D. Scheuneman, & J.R. Grenier (Eds.), Test interpretation and diversity: Achieving equity in assessment (pp. 51–73). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Gaddes, W.H. & Edgell, D. (1993). Learning disabilities and brain function: A neuropsychological approach. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Giordani, B., Boivin, M.J., Opel, B., Noah dia Nseyila, D., & Lauer, R.E. (1996). Use of the K-ABC with children in Zaire, Africa: An evaluation of the sequential–simultaneous processing distinction within an intercultural context. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 43, 1–20.Google Scholar
Greenfield, P.M. (1997). You can't take it with you: Why ability assessments don't cross cultures. American Psychologist, 52, 1115–1124.Google Scholar
Gregory, R.L. (1966). Eye and brain: The psychology of seeing. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
Harkness, S. & Super, C.M. (1977). Why African children are so hard to test: Issues in cross-cultural research. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences, 285, 326–331.Google Scholar
Hedden, T., Park, D.C., Nisbett, R., Li-Jiun, J., Qicheng, J., & Shulan, J. (2002). Cultural variation in verbal versus spatial neuropsychological function across the life span. Neuropsychology, 16, 65–73.Google Scholar
Holding, P.A. & Katana, H. (1997). The relationship between socio-economic measures and school attendance and achievement in Kilifi District. Unpublished raw data, KEMRI Centre for Geographic Medicine, Kilifi, Kenya.
Holding, P.A., Stevenson, J., Peshu, N., & Marsh, K. (1999). Cognitive sequelae of severe malaria with impaired consciousness. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 93, 529–534.Google Scholar
Huttenlocker, J., Levine, S., & Vevea, J. (1998). Environmental input and cognitive growth: A study using time-period comparisons. Child Development, 69, 1012–1029.Google Scholar
Jaccard, J. & Guilamo-Ramos, V. (2002). Analysis of variance frameworks in clinical child and adolescent psychology: Issues and recommendations. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31, 130–146.Google Scholar
Jacobson, J.L. & Jacobson, S.W. (1995). Strategies for detecting the effects of prenatal drug exposure: Lessons from research on alcohol. In M. Lewis & M. Bendersky (Eds.), Mothers, babies, and cocaine: The role of toxins in development (pp. 111–127). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Jahoda, G., Cheyne, W.M., Deregowski, J.B., Sinha, D., & Collingbourne, R. (1976). Utilization of pictorial information in classroom learning: A cross cultural study. AV Communication Review, 24, 295–315.Google Scholar
Kamara, A.I. & Easley, J.A. (1977). Is the rate of cognitive development uniform across cultures? A methodological critique with new evidence from Themne children. In P.R. Dasen (Ed.), Piagetian psychology: Cross cultural contribution (pp. 26–63) New York: Gardener Press.
Kaufman, A.S. & Kaufman, N.L., (1983). Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
Kenyan Institute of Science and Education. (1984). Screening Test for Children from 6 Months to 6 Years. Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, Nairobi, Kenya.
Kline, P. (1993). The handbook of psychological testing. London: Routledge.
Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition. (1979). What's cultural about cross-cultural cognitive psychology? Annual Review of Psychology, 30, 145–172.Google Scholar
Lewis, B.A. (2001). Familial and genetic bases of speech and language disorders. In F. Levy & D.A. Hay (Eds.), Attention, genes, and ADHD (pp. 80–98). Hove, East Sussex, UK: Brunner-Routledge.
Lidz, C.S. & Thomas, C. (1987). The preschool learning assessment device: Extention of a static approach. In C.S. Lidz (Ed.), Dynamic assessment: An interactional approach to evaluating learning potential (pp. 288–326). New York: Guilford.
Looareesuwan, S., (1992) Overview: Pathophysiology and management of cerebral malaria. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, 4, 155–165.Google Scholar
Lozoff, B., Jimenez, E., Hagen, J., Mollen, E., & Wolf, A.W. (2000). Poorer behavioral and developmental outcome more than 10 years after treatment for iron deficiency in infancy. Pediatrics, 105 [Electronic version], e51.Google Scholar
Luria, A.R. (1971). Towards the problem of the historical nature of psychological processes. International Journal of Psychology, 6, 259–272.Google Scholar
Luria, A.R. (1973). The working brain: An introduction to neuropsychology. Middlesex, UK: Penguin Books Ltd.
Marsh, K. (1995). Indicators of life threatening malaria in African children. New England Journal of Medicine, 332, 1399–1404.Google Scholar
Marsh, K., English, M., Crawley, J., & Peshu, N.M., (1996). The pathogenesis of severe malaria in African children. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 90, 1–8.Google Scholar
Miller-Jones, D. (1989). Culture and Testing. American Psychologist, 44, 360–366.Google Scholar
Mirsky, A.F. & Duncan, C.C. (2001). A nosology of disorders of attention. Annals of the New York Academy Sciences, 931, 17–32.Google Scholar
Molyneux, M.E., Taylor, T.E., Wirima, J.J., & Borgenstein, A., (1989). Clinical features and prognostic indicators in paediatric cerebral malaria: A study of 131 comatose Malawian children. Quarterly Journal of Medicine, 71, 441–459.Google Scholar
Moon, S.-B. (1989). A cross-cultural validity study of the Kaufman Assessment Battery with Korean children. Dissertation Abstracts International, 49, 8A (UMI No 88-21-823).Google Scholar
Morrison, S.R. & Siegel, L.S., (1991). Learning disabilities: A critical review of definitional and assessment issues. In J.E. Obrzut & G.W. Hynd (Eds.), Neuropsychological foundations of learning disabilities: A handbook of issues, methods, and practice (pp. 79–97). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Muntendam, A.H., Jaffar, S., Bleichrodt, N., & van Hensbraek, M.B. (1996) Absence of neuropsychological sequelae following cerebral malaria in Gambian children. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 90, 391–394.Google Scholar
Naglieri, J.A. & Prewett, P.N. (1990). Nonverbal intelligence measures: A selected review of instruments and their use. In C.R. Reynolds & R.W. Kamphaus (Eds.), A handbook of psychological and educational assessments of children (pp. 348–370): New York: Guilford Press.
Nell, V. (1999). Cross-cultural neuropsychological assessment: Theory and practice. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Newton, C.R.J.C., Peshu, N., Kendal, B., Kirkham, F.J., Sowunmi, A., Waruiru, C., Mwangi, I., Murphy, S.A., & Marsh, K., (1994). Brain swelling and ischaemia in African children with cerebral malaria. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 70, 281–287.Google Scholar
Ngub'usim, M.N. (1988). The psychometric function of traditional African riddles. International Journal of Psychology, 23, 489–503.Google Scholar
Olness, K. (2003). Effects on brain development leading to cognitive impairment: A worldwide epidemic. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 24, 120–130.Google Scholar
Olson, D.R. (1976). Culture, technology, and intellect. In L.B. Resnick (Ed.), The Nature of Intelligence (pp. 189–202). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Parmar, R.S. (1989). Cross-cultural transfer on non-verbal intelligence tests: An (in)validation study. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 59, 379–388.Google Scholar
Pennington, B.F. (1997). Dimensions of Executive Functions in Normal and Abnormal Development. In N.A. Krasnegor, G.R. Lyon, & P.S. Goldman-Rakic (Eds.), Development of the prefrontal cortex: Evolution, neurobiology, and behavior (pp. 265–281). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Reynolds, C.R. (1983). Test bias: In God we trust: All others must have data. Journal of Special Education, 17, 242–260.Google Scholar
Richman, N., Stevenson, J., & Graham, P. (1982). Preschool to school: A behavioural study. London: Academic Press.
Rogoff, B. & Chavajay, P. (1995). What's become of research on the cultural basis of cognitive development? American Psychologist, 50, 859–877.Google Scholar
Rogoff, B., Gauvain, M., & Ellis, S. (1984). Development viewed in its cultural context. In M.H. Bornstein & M.E. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental psychology: An advanced textbook (pp. 533–571). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Rourke, B.P. (1982). Central processing deficiencies in children: Toward a developmental neuropsychological model. Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 4, 1–18.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (1985). Family and school influences on cognitive development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 26, 683–704.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., Graham, P., & Yule, W. (1970). A neuropsychiatric study of childhood. London: Heineman.
Serpell, R. (1979). How specific are perceptual skills? A cross-cultural study of pattern reproduction. British Journal of Psychology, 70, 365–380.Google Scholar
Serpell, R. (1993). The significance of schooling: Life journeys in an African society. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Sigman, M., McDonald, M.A., Neuman, C., & Bwibo, N. (1991). Prediction of cognitive competence in Kenyan children from toddler nutrition, family characteristics and abilities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 307–320.Google Scholar
Sigman, M., Neuman, C., Jansen, A.A.J., & Bwibo, N. (1989). Cognitive abilities of Kenyan children in relation to nutrition, family characteristics and education. Child Development, 60, 1463–1474.Google Scholar
Sparrow, S., Balla, D., & Cicchetti, D. (1984). Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
Sternberg, R.J. & Grigorenko, E.L. (2002). Just because we “know” it's true doesn't mean it's really true: A case study in Kenya. Psychological Science Agenda, 15, 8–10.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R.J., Nokes, K., Geissler, P.W., Prince, R., Okatcha, F., Bundy, D.A., & Grigorenko, E.L. (2001). The relationship between academic and practical intelligence: A case study in Kenya. Intelligence, 29, 402–418.Google Scholar
Stevenson, H.W., Chen, C., & Uttal, D.H. (1990). Beliefs and achievement: A study of Black, White, and Hispanic children. Child Development, 61, 508–523.Google Scholar
Stevenson, H.W., Stigler, J.W., Shin-ying, L., Lucker, G.W., Kitamura, S., & Hsu, C. (1985). Cognitive performance and academic achievement of Japanese, Chinese, and American children. Child Development, 56, 718–734.Google Scholar
Strong, C.J. (1998). The Strong Narrative Assessment Procedure. Eau Clair, WI: Thinking Publications.
Super, C.M. & Harkness, S. (1986). The developmental niche: A conceptualization at the interface of child and culture. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 9, 545–569.Google Scholar
Taylor, H.G., & Alden, J. (1997). Age-related differences in outcomes following childhood brain insults: An introduction and overview. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 3, 555–567.Google Scholar
Taylor, H.G., Klein, N., Minich, N.M., & Hack, M. (2000). Middle-school-age outcomes in children with very low birth weight. Child Development, 71, 1495–1511.Google Scholar
Taylor, H.G., Mills, E.L., Ciampi, A., Du Berger, R., Watters, G.V., Gold, R., MacDonald, N., & Michaels, R.H. (1990). The sequelae of Haemophilus influenzae meningitis in school-age children. New England Journal of Medicine, 323, 1657–1663.Google Scholar
Taylor, H.G., Schatschneider, C., Petrill, S., Barry, C.T., & Owens, C. (1996). Executive dysfunction in children with early brain disease: Outcomes post meningitis. Developmental Neuropsychology, 12, 35–51.Google Scholar
Vernon, P.E. (1967). Abilities and educational attainments in an East African environment. Journal of Special Education, 1, 335–345.Google Scholar
Vernon, P.E. (1971). The structure of human abilities. London: Methuen.
Wagner, D.A. (1974). The development of short-term and incidental memory: A cross-cultural study. Child Development, 45, 389–396.Google Scholar
Wang, W., Fang, F., & Fang, G. (1995). A study of children's logical cognition development. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 27, 46–53.Google Scholar
Weisglas-Kuperus, N., Baerts, W., Fetter, W.P.F., & Hempel, M.S. (1994). Minor neurological dysfunction and quality of movement in relation to neonatal cerebral damage and subsequent development. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 36, 727–735.Google Scholar
Wober, M. (1975). Psychology in Africa. London: International African Institute.
Wolke, D. & Meyer, R. (1999). Cognitive status, language attainment, and pre-reading skills of 6-year-old very preterm children and their peers: The Bavarian longitudinal study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 41, 94–109.Google Scholar
Yeates, K.O. & Taylor, H.G. (2001). Neuropsychological assessment of children. In J.J.W. Andrews, D.H. Saklofske, & H.L. Janzen (Eds.), Handbook of psychoeducational assessment: Ability, achievement, and behavior in children (pp. 415–450). New York: Academic Press.
Zeidner, M. (1987). Test of the cultural bias hypothesis: Some Israeli findings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 38–48.Google Scholar
Zigmond, M.J., Bloom, F.E., Landis, S.C., Roberts, J.L., & Squire, L.R. (Eds.). (1999). Fundamental neuroscience. New York: Academic Press.