Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T04:21:28.307Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF INCLUSION: THE RISE AND FALL OF THE WORKHOUSE SYSTEM

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 October 2017

Cosma Orsi
Cosma Orsi*
Affiliation:
Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore—Economics, Largo Gemelli 1, Milan20123, Italy.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The aim of this article is to describe the rise and fall of the workhouse system in connection with the developments that took place in economic thought in the transition from mercantilism to the Classical tradition. By examining the economic debate about wages, efficiency, labor market, workers’ mobility, and unemployment, we discuss whether the social policy shift epitomized by institutional reforms like the Gilbert Act (1782), the Rose Act (1793), and the Speenhamland system (1795) was accompanied and eventually inspired by a change in the perception of major political economy issues. In doing so, we review the writings of Jacob Vanderlint (d. 1740), George Berkeley (1685–1753), Malachy Postlethwayt (1707?–1767), Josiah Tucker (1713–1799), David Hume (1711–1776), and Adam Smith (1723-1790), among others. Although a direct influence by these writers cannot be proven, the originality of the present work rests on the effort to put into perspective the arguments elaborated by economic thinkers and the proposals made by social reformers so as to identify possible connections between economic theorizing and social legislation.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of the History of Economic Thought , Volume 39 , Issue 4 , December 2017 , pp. 453 - 481
Copyright
Copyright © The History of Economics Society 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abstract of the Answers and Returns Made Pursuant to an Act , Passed in the 43d Year of His Majesty King George III. 1803–04 Entitled, “An Act for Procuring Returns Relative to the Expense and Maintenance of the Poor in England.” 1804. London: House of Commons.Google Scholar
Acland, John. 1786. A Plan for Rendering the Poor Independent on Public Contribution; Founded on the Basis of the Friendly Societies, Commonly Called Clubs. London: R. Thorn.Google Scholar
Anonymous. 1681. The Trade of England Revived. London.Google Scholar
Anonymous. 1732. Account of Several Workhouses. London.Google Scholar
Anonymous. 1732. Gentlemen’s Magazine II . London.Google Scholar
Ashby, Wilfred A. 1912. “One Hundred Years of Poor Law Administration in a Warwickshire Village.” In Vinogradoff, Paul, ed., Oxford Studies in Social History. Volume III. Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 2–190.Google Scholar
Ashcraft, Richard. 1996. “Lockean Ideas, Poverty, and the Development of Liberal Political Theory.” In Brewer, John and Staves, Susan, eds., Early Modern Conceptions of Property. London and New York: Routledge, pp. 43–61.Google Scholar
Baudeau, Nicolas. 1765. Idées d’un citoyen sur les besoins, les droits et les devoirs des vrais pauvres. Paris.Google Scholar
Baugh, Daniel. 1975. “The Costs of Poor Relief in South-East England, 1790–1834.” Economic History Review 28: 50–68.Google Scholar
Baum, Sandy. 1992. “Poverty, Inequality and the Role of Government: What Would Adam Smith Say?” Eastern Economic Journal 18 (2): 143–156.Google Scholar
Becher, Thomas J. 1826. Observations upon the Report from the Selected Committee on the Laws Respecting Friendly Societies. Newark.Google Scholar
Bellers, John. 1696. Proposals for Raising a Colledge of Industry. London.Google Scholar
Berkeley, George. 1735–37. The Querist. London.Google Scholar
Berkshire Session Order Book 1791–95 . 1959. In Aspinall, Arthur, ed., English Historical Documents. London: Routledge, p. 414.Google Scholar
Blackstone, William. [1776] 1803. Commentaries on the Laws of England. Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Blaug, Mark. 1963. “The Myth of the Old Poor Law and the Making of the New.” The Journal of Economic History 23 (2): 151–184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blaug, Mark. 1964. “The Poor Law Report Re-examined.” The Journal of Economic History 24 (2): 229–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blaug, Mark. 1978. Economic Theory in Retrospect. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bonar, James. 1885. Malthus and His Work. London: Macmillan & Co.Google Scholar
Boyer, Robert. 1990. An Economic History of the English Poor Law 1750–1850. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braddon, Laurence. 1722. The Miseries of the Poor Are a National Sin, Shame, and Charge. London.Google Scholar
Brewer, John, and Porter, Roy, eds. 1993. Consumption and the World of Goods. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Cary, John. 1695. An Essay on the State of England in Relation to Its Trade. Bristol.Google Scholar
Chalmers, Thomas. 1900. On Charity. London.Google Scholar
Clark, Paul. 2000. British Clubs and Societies 1580–1800: The Origins of an Associational World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clayton, John. 1755. Friendly Advice to the Poor. London.Google Scholar
Coats, Bob. 1958. “Changing Attitudes to Labour in the Mid-Eighteenth Century.” The Economic History Review 11 (1): 35–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coats, Bob. 1960. “Economic Thought and Poor Law Policy in the Eighteenth Century.” Economic History Review 13 (1): 39–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cobbett, William. 1818. Parliamentary History of England from the Earliest Period to the Year 1803. Volume 32. London.Google Scholar
Cole, William A. 1973. “Eighteenth-Century Economic Growth Revisited.” Exploration in Economic History 10 (4): 327–348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colquhoun, Patrick. 1806. A Treatise on Indigence. London.Google Scholar
Condorcet, Jean-Antoine de Caritat, Nicolas. 1795. Esquisse d’un tableau historique des progress de l’esprit humain. Paris.Google Scholar
Cooke, Arthur. 1950. Corporation, Trust and Company: An Essay in Legal History. Manchester: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Coplestone, Edward. 1819. A Second Letter to the Rt. Hon. Robert Peel on the Causes of the increase in Pauperism and on the Poor Laws. Oxford.Google Scholar
Cowherd, Raymond. 1960. “The Humanitarian Reform of the English Poor Laws from 1782 to 1815.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 104 (3): 328–342.Google Scholar
Cowherd, Raymond. 1977. Political Economists and the English Poor Laws: A Historical Study of the Influence of Classical Economics on the Formation of Social Welfare Policy. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Cunliffe, John, and Erreygers, Guido. 2004. The Origins of Universal Grants: An Anthology of Historical Writings on Basic Capital and Basic Income. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davenant, Charles. 1696. An Essay on Ways and Means. London.Google Scholar
Davies, Davis. 1795. The Case of Labourers in Husbandry. Bath and London: G. G. & J. Robinson.Google Scholar
Deane, Phyllis. 1965. The First Industrial Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
de Boisguilbert, Pierre le Pesant. [1704] 2000. Dissertation de la nature des richesses, de l’argent et des tributs, où l’on découvre la fausse idée qui règne dans le monde à l’égard de ce trois artiche. Sydney: Centre for the Study of the History of Economic Thought.Google Scholar
Defoe, Daniel. 1697. An Essay Upon Projects. London.Google Scholar
Defoe, Daniel. 1701. The True Born Englishman. London.Google Scholar
Defoe, Daniel. 1704. Giving Alms No Charity and Employing the Poor a Grievance to the Nation. London.Google Scholar
Defoe, Daniel. 1713. Proposal for Imploying the Poor In and About the City of London. London: J. Backer.Google Scholar
de Forbonnais, Francois V. 1754. Éléments du commerce. Leiden.Google Scholar
de Gournay, Jacques C. M. V. [1754] 1983. Remarques sur les Traités sur le commerce de Josiah Child . In Tsuda, Takumi, ed., Traités sur le commerce de Josiah Child avec les remarques inédites de Vincent de Gournay. Tokyo: Kinokuniya; London: Blackwell.Google Scholar
D.R.O. Exeter Borough Records. 1705. Corporation of the Poor Minute Book. Volume II.Google Scholar
Eastwood, David. 2002. “Local Government and Local Society.” In Dickinson, Henry T., ed., Companion to Eighteenth-Century Britain. Oxford: Blackwell Publisher Ltd., pp. 40–54.Google Scholar
Eden, Frederick Morton. 1797. The State of the Poor, or an History of the Labouring Classes in England. London.Google Scholar
Eden, Frederick Morton. 1801. Observation on Friendly Society. London.Google Scholar
Eden, Frederick Morton. 1806. On the Policy and Expediency of Granting Insurance Charters. London.Google Scholar
Fiedler, Paul. 2006. Social Welfare in Pre-Industrial England. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Fielding, Henry. 1751. An Enquiry into the Causes of the Late Increase of Robbers. London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fielding, Henry. 1753. A Proposal for Making an Effectual Provision for the Poor. London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forster, Nathaniel. 1767. An Enquiry into the Causes of the Present High Price of Provisions. London.Google Scholar
Friedman, Milton. 1962. Capitalism and Freedom. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Furniss, Edgard. 1920. The Position of the Laborer in a System of Nationalism. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.Google Scholar
Gilbert, Geoffrey. 1997. “Adam Smith on the Nature and Causes of Poverty.” Review of Social Economy 55 (3): 273–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, Thomas. 1781. Plan for the Better Relief and Employment of the Poor. London.Google Scholar
Gilbert, Thomas. 1786. A Bill Intended to be Offered to Parliament, for the Better Relief and Employment of the Poor. London.Google Scholar
Goodlad, Lauren. 2003. Victorian Literature and the Victorian State: Character and Governance in a Liberal Society. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Gosden, Peter. 1961. The Friendly Societies in England 1815–1875. Manchester: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Gouldsmith, Richard. 1725. Some Considerations on Trade. London.Google Scholar
Graunt, John. 1662. Natural and Political Observations Made Upon the Bills of Morality. London.Google Scholar
Green, David. 1999. “The Friendly Societies and Adam Smith’s Liberalism.” In Gladstone, David, ed., Before Beveridge Welfare, Before the Welfare State. London: Civitas, pp. 18–25.Google Scholar
Hammond, J. Lawrence, and Hammond, Barbara. [1911] 1929. The Village Labourer 1760–1832: A Study in the Government of England Before the Reform Bill. London and New York: Longmans, Green, and Co.Google Scholar
Hampson, Ethel M. 1934. The Treatment of Poverty in Cambridgeshire, 1597–1834. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Harris, William. 1691. Remarks on the Affairs and the Trade of England and Ireland. London.Google Scholar
Hartlib, Samuel. 1649. Londons Charities Stilling the Poore Orphans Cry. London.Google Scholar
Himmelfarb, Gertrude. 1984. The Idea of Poverty: England in the Early Industrial Age. London and Boston: Faber and Faber.Google Scholar
Hitchcock, Timothy. 1985. “The English Workhouse: A Study in Institutional Poor Relief in Selected Counties, 1696–1750.” PhD diss. University of Oxford, Oxford.Google Scholar
Hobsbawm, Eric, and Rudé, George. 1970. Captain Swing. London: Lawrence and Wishart.Google Scholar
Hollander, Samuel. 1973. The Economics of Adam Smith. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hont, Istvan. 2008. “The Rich-Countries–Poor-Countries Debates Revisited.” In Schabas, Margaret and Wennerlind, Carl, eds., David Hume’s Political Economy. London: Routledge, pp. 243–323.Google Scholar
Howlett, John. 1781. An Examination of Dr. Price’s Essay on the Population of England and Wales. London.Google Scholar
Howlett, John. 1796. An Examination of Mr. Pitt’s Speech in the House of Commons on 12 Feb. 1796, Relative to the Condition of the Poor. London.Google Scholar
Hume, David. 1739. A Treatise of Human Nature. London: John Noon.Google Scholar
Hume, David. [1752] 1955. Writings in Economics. London and Toronto: Nelson.Google Scholar
Ismay, Penelope G. 2010. “Trust Among Strangers: Securing British Modernity ‘by way of friendly society,’ 1780s–1870s.” PhD diss. University of California Berkeley, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Ivison, Duncan. 1997. The Self at Liberty: Political Argument and the Arts of Government. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
John, Arthur. 1961. “Aspects of English Economic Growth in the First Half of the Eighteenth Century.” Economica 28 (110): 176–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Edward. 1776. Observations on the Scheme Before Parliament of the Maintenance of the Poor. Chester.Google Scholar
Kelly, Patrick. 1986. “Ireland and the Critique of Mercantilism in Berkeley’s Querist.” In Berman, David, ed., George Berkeley: Essay and Replies. Dublin: Irish Academic Press, pp. 101–116.Google Scholar
King, Gregory. [1688] 1936. Two Tracts by Gregory King. Edited by Barnett, George E.. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
King, Sheffield. 1997. “Reconstructing Lives: The Poor, the Poor Law and Welfare in Calverley, 1650–1820.” Social History 22 (3): 304–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, Steven. 2000. Poverty and Welfare in England, 1700–1850: A Regional Perspective. Manchester: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Kowaleski Wallace, Elisabeth. 2000. “The Needs of Strangers: Friendly Societies and Insurance Societies in Late Eighteenth-Century England.” Eighteenth-Century Life 24 (3): 53–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knott, John. 1986. Popular Opposition to the 1834 Poor Law. London and Sidney: Croom Helm.Google Scholar
Kuznets, Simon. 1966. Modern Economic Growth: Rate, Structure, and Spread. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Locke, John. [1697] 1997. An Essay on the Poor Law, London . In Goldie, Mark, ed., John Locke Political Essays. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 182–198.Google Scholar
Maisse, Joseph. 1757. Consideration Relating to the Poor. London.Google Scholar
Malthus, Robert Thomas. 1798. An Essay on Population. London.Google Scholar
Mandeville, Bernard. 1714 [1962]. The Fable of the Bees. Or, Private Vices and Publick Benefits. New York: Capricorn Books.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mandler, Peter. 1987. “The Making of the New Poor Law Redivivus.” Past & Present 117: 131–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mantoux, Paul. 1905. The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century: An Outline of the Beginnings of the Modern Factory System in England. London: Jonathan Cape.Google Scholar
Marshall, Dorothy. [1926] 2007. The English Poor in the Eighteenth Century. New York: Augustus Kelly.Google Scholar
Marshall, Dorothy. 1956. English People in the Eighteenth Century. London and New York: Longmann Green & Co, Ltd.Google Scholar
Marshall, Mike. 1998. “Scottish Economic Thought and the High Wage Economy: Hume, Smith and McCulloch on Wages and Work Motivation.” Scottish Journal of Political Economy 45 (3): 309–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, Mike. 2000. “Luxury, Economic Development, and Work Motivation: David Hume, Adam Smith, and J. R. McCulloch.” History of Political Economy 32 (3): 631–648.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maseres, Francis. 1772. A Proposal for Establishing Life-Annuities in Parishes for the Benefit for the Industrious Poor. London.Google Scholar
McCloskey, Donald. 1973. “New Perspective on the Poor Law, Explorations.” Economic History 10: 419–436.Google Scholar
McKay, Ailsa. 2005. The Future of Social Security Policy: Women, Work and a Citizen’s Basic Income. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLean, Iain. 2006. Adam Smith, Radical and Egalitarian: An Interpretation for the 21st Century. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
McStay Adam, Thomas. 1990. Bureaucrats and Beggars: French Social Policy in the Age of the Enlightenment. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mencher, Samuel. 1967. Poor Law to Poverty Program: Economic Security Policy in Britain and the United States. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Mitchison, Rosalind. 1991. Coping with Destitution: Poverty and Relief in Western Europe. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mokyr, Joel. 1999. “Editor’s Introduction: The New Economic History and the Industrial Revolution.” In Mokyr, Joel, ed., The British Industrial Revolution: An Economic Perspective. Boulder: Westview Press, pp. 1–127.Google Scholar
Mortimer, Thomas. 1772. Elements of Commerce, Politics and Finance. London.Google Scholar
Mun, Thomas. 1664. England’s Tresaure by Forraign Trade. London: Thomas Clark.Google Scholar
Nacol, Emily. 2012. “Poverty, Work, and ‘The People’ in Locke’s Political Thought.” Paper delivered at the Cornell University Political Theory Workshop, Ithaca, NY, pp. 1–34.Google Scholar
Namier, Lewis, and Brooke, John. 1964. The History of Parliament: The House of Commons 1754–1790. London: Secker & Warburg.Google Scholar
Neeson, Jeannette. 1996. Commoners: Common Right, Enclosure and Social Change in England, 1700–1820. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nicholls, George. 1854. A History of the English Poor Law. London: John Murray.Google Scholar
Oxley, William. 1969. “Permanent Poor in South-West in Lancashire under the Old Poor Law.” In Harris, John. R., ed., Liverpool and Merseyside. New York: Augustus M. Kelley, pp. 16–49.Google Scholar
Paine, Thomas. [1791] 2003. Common Sense, Rights of Man, and Other Essential Writings of Thomas Paine. New York: Signet.Google Scholar
Paine, Thomas. [1797] 2003. “Agrarian Justice.” In Paine, Thomas, Common Sense, Rights of Man, and Other Essential Writings of Thomas Paine. New York: Signet, pp. 371–378.Google Scholar
Patriquin, Larry. 2007. Agrarian Capitalism and Poor Relief in England 1500–1860. Rethinking the Origins of the Welfare State. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polanyi, Karl. [1944] 1998. The Great Transformation. The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time. London: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Postlethwayt, Malachy. 1759. Britain’s Commercial Interest: Explained and Improved. Volume I. London.Google Scholar
Postlethwayt, Malachy. 1774. The Universal Dictionary of Trade and Commerce. London.Google Scholar
Potter, Robert. 1775. Observation on the Poor Law. London.Google Scholar
Poynter, Riddoch J. 1969. Society and Pauperism: English Ideas on Poor Relief, 1795–1834. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Price, Richard. 1771. Observations on Reversionary Payments on Schemes for Providing Annuities for Widows, and for Persons in Old Age; the Method of Calculating the Values of Assurance on Lives; and on the National Debt. Dublin.Google Scholar
Purdy, Frederick. 1860. “The Statistics of the English Poor Rate before and since the Passing of the Poor Law Amendment Act.” Journal of the Statistical Society of London 23 (3): 286–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rothschild, Emma. 1992. “Adam Smith and Conservative Economics.” Economic History Review 45 (1): 74–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rothschild, Emma. 1995. “The Debate on Economic and Social Security in the Late Eighteenth Century: Lessons of a Road Not Taken.” Paper presented at the World Summit for Social Development, Copenhagen.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruggles, Thomas. 1793. The History of the Poor; Their Rights, Duties, and the Laws Respecting Them. London.Google Scholar
Schmidt, Claudia. 2003. David Hume: Reason in History. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.Google Scholar
Scott, John. 1773. Observation on the State of the Parochial and Vagrant Poor. London.Google Scholar
Sen, Amartya. 2010. “Adam Smith and the Contemporary World.” Erasmus Journal for Philosophy and Economics 3 (1): 50–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slack, Paul. 1990. The English Poor Law 1531–1782. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slack, Paul. 1999. From Reformation to Improvement. Public Welfare in Early Modern England. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Smelser, Neil. 1959. Social Change in the Industrial Revolution. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Smith, Adam. [1759] 1976. The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Adam. [1776] 1976. An Inquiry into the Nature and the Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Richard. 1986. “Transfer Incomes, Risk and Security: The Roles of the Family and the Collectivity in Recent Theories of Fertility Change.” In Coleman, David and Schofield, Roger, eds., The State of Population Theory: Forward from Malthus. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, pp. 188–211.Google Scholar
Snell, Keith. 1985. Annals of the Labouring Poor: Social Change and Agrarian England, 1660–1900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sobel, Mechal. 1989. The World They Made Together: Black and White Values in Eighteenth-Century Virginia. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Solar, Peter. 1995. “Poor Relief and English Economic Development before the Industrial Revolution.” The Economic History Review 48 (1): 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solt Dennis, Victoria. 2005. Discovering Friendly and Fraternal Societies. Princes Risborough: Shire Publications.Google Scholar
Soule, Edward. 2000. “Hume on Economic Policy and Human Nature.” Hume Studies 25 (1): 143–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, James S. 1991. “A Different Kind of Speenhamland: Non-resident Relief in the Industrial Revolution.” Journal of British Studies 30 (2): 183–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Temple, William. 1758. A Vindication of Commerce and the Arts. London.Google Scholar
Thompson, Edward P. 1963. The Making of the Working Class. London: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Townsend, Joseph. 1786. A Dissertation on the Poor Laws, by a Well-Whished to Mankind. London.Google Scholar
Tucker, Joshua. 1774. Four Tracts on Political and Commercial Subjects. London.Google Scholar
Vanderlint, Jacob. 1734. Money Answers All Things. London.Google Scholar
Van Leeuwen, Mark. 1994. “The Logic of Charity: Poor Relief in Preindustrial Europe.” The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 24 (4): 589–413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vernon-Harcourt, Leveson. 1860. The Diaries and Correspondence of the Right Hon. George Rose. Volume 2. London.Google Scholar
Viner, Jacob. 1927. “Adam Smith and Laissez Faire.” Journal of Political Economy 35 (1): 198–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, Arthur. 1794. Travels During the Years 1787, 1788 and 1789 Undertaken More Particularly with a View of Ascertaining the Cultivation, Wealth, Resources, and National Prosperity of the Kingdom of France. Dublin: R. Cross.Google Scholar
Young, Arthur. 1801. An Inquiry into the Propriety of Applying Wastes to the Better Maintenance and Support of the Poor. London.Google Scholar
Webb, Sydney, and Webb, Beatrice. 1927–29. English Poor Law History. Part I: The Old Poor Law. London: London Green.Google Scholar
White, John. 1630. Planter’s Plea. London.Google Scholar
Winch, Donald. 1998. “Poverty and Pauperism: From Smith to Malthus.” Kumamoto Journal of Economics 3 (4): 1–15.Google Scholar
Zouch, Henry. 1776. Remarks upon the Late Resolutions of the House of Commons Respecting the Proposed Change of the Poor Laws. Leeds.Google Scholar