² D'Emilio, John and Freedman, Estelle, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America, 2nd ed. (Chicago, 1997)Google Scholar. For analyses relying on the Victorian-to-modern transition, see, for instance, Burnham, John C., “The Progressive-Era Revolution in American Attitudes Toward Sex” Journal of American History 59 (March 1973): 885–908CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Erenberg, Lewis, Steppin' Out:New York Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Chicago, 1981)Google Scholar; Gay, Peter, Schnitzler's Century: The Making of Middle-Class Culture, 1815-1914 (New York, 2002)Google Scholar, in some ways a synopsis of Gay's, five-volume The Bourgeois ExperienceGoogle Scholar; and Langum, David J., Crossing over the Line: Legislating Morality and the Mann Act (Chicago, 1994)Google Scholar.

³ DuCille, Ann, “‘Othered’ Matters: Reconceptualizing Dominance and Difference in the History of Sexuality in America,” journal of the History of Sexuality 1 (1990): 102–27Google ScholarPubMed, inspired this point.

⁴ With apologies to Bruno Latour, the tide of whose We Have Never Been Modern, trans. Porter, Catherine (Cambridge, MA, 1993; orig. Paris, 1991)Google Scholar, I borrow and revise here with somewhat similar but far more modest intentions.

⁵ Foucault, Michel, History of Sexuality, Volume I: An Introduction (New York, 1980), 10-12, 17–35Google Scholar.

⁶ The exception to this statement are many works in the history of medicine, which I reluctantly excluded for this reason when I realized I could not possibly read everything in the time available. But see Brumberg, Joan Jacobs, The Body Project: An Intimate History of American Girls (New York, 1998)Google Scholar; for critiques of medical and scientific research on sexuality, see Fausto-Sterling, Anne, Sexing the Body: Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality (New York, 2000)Google Scholar, and Oudshoorn, Nelly, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archaeology of Sex Hormones (New York, 1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷ Weeks, Jeffrey, Making Sexual History (Cambridge, UK, 2000), 127–41Google Scholar; Foucault, , History of Sexuality, Volume IGoogle Scholar; Butler, Judith, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of “Sex” (New York, 1993), 1–23Google Scholar; Katz, Jonathan Ned, in Love Stories: Sex between Men before Homosexuality (Oxford, 2001)Google Scholar, rejects the repressive hypothesis and endorses social constructionism yet also celebrates the diminishing repression that gay men face in the U.S. This position is both contradictoryand absolutely necessary; the idea that sexualities are socially constructed does not mean that all are equal or equally satisfying.

⁸ Buder, , Bodies that Matter, and her earlier Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York, 1990)Google Scholar. Along with Weeks and Foucault in note 7, useful entrees into the theoretical literature include Halberstam, Judith, Female Masculinity (Durham, NC, 1998)Google Scholar; Stoler, Ann Laura, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham, NC, 1995)Google Scholar; Lancaster, Roger N. and Leonardo, Micaela di, eds., The Gender/Sexuality Reader: Culture, History, Political Economy (New York, 1997)Google Scholar ; and Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky, Epistemology of the Closet (Berkeley, 1990)Google Scholar.

⁹ It's worth repeating that the Foucaultian critique of the “repressive hypothesis” rejects the idea of an officially enforced silence and ignorance in the nineteenth century, not the idea that authorities sought to control sexuality by selectively silencing some or punishing certain acts. The opposite of repression is not freedom. Foucault's point is that the official discourse produces sexuality as a normative category of subjective experience rather than represses a natural instinct. It produces and punishes deviance in the same process in which it sanctions normalcy; see Butler, , Bodies that Matter, 14–15Google Scholar. On the importance of listening for silences, see Hine, Darlene Clark, “Rape and the Inner lives of Black Women in the Middle West: Preliminary Thoughts on the Culture of Dissemblance,” Unequal Sisters: A Multi-Cultural Reader in U.S. Women's History, ed. DuBois, Ellen Carol and Ruiz, Vicki L. (New York, 1990), 292–97Google Scholar.

¹⁰ The literature of the Progressive Era and the 1920s notably often provides grist for literary scholars and philosophers interested in sexuality; Butler, for example, uses the works of Willa Cather and Nella Larsen to ground her argument in Bodies That Matter, 143-86. To the extent that there is any history behind such uses, it is generally a Foucault-inflected version of the transition from an anti-female Victorianism to a problematic modern sexual liberalism

¹¹ Haller, John S. Jr, and Haller, Robin M., The Physician and Sexuality in Victorian America (1974; Carbondale, IL, 1995)Google Scholar; Gordon, Linda, Woman's Body, Woman's Right: Birth Control in America (New York, 1974)Google Scholar; Degler, Carl, At Odds: Women and the Family in America from the Revolution to the Present (New York, 1980)Google Scholar; Stearns, Carol Z. and Stearns, Peter N., “Victorian Sexuality: Can Historians Do It Better?” Journal of Social History 18 (1985): 625–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Simmons, Christina, “Modern Sexuality and the Myth of Victorian Repression,” in Passion and Power: Sexuality in History, ed. Peiss, Kathy and Simmons, Christina (Philadelphia, 1989), 157–77Google Scholar; Seidman, Stephen, “The Power of Desire and the Danger of Pleasure: Victorian Sexuality Reconsidered,” Journal of Social History 24 (Fall 1990): 47–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Romantic Longings: hove in America, 1830-1980 (New York, 1991)Google Scholar; Rotundo, Anthony, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York, 1993), 109–66Google Scholar; Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz, Rereading Sex: Battles over Sexual Knowledge and Suppression in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 2002)Google Scholar.

¹² Gordon, , Woman's BodyGoogle Scholar; Cott, Nancy F., “Passionlessness: An Interpretation of Victorian Sexual Ideology, 1790-1850,” in A Heritage of Her Own, ed. Cott, Nancy F. and Pleck, Elizabeth H. (New York, 1979), 162–81Google Scholar; Giddings, Paula, When and Where I Enter: The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America (New York, 1984), 85–117Google Scholar; Pascoe, Peggy, Relations of Rescue: The Search forFemale Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1939 (New York, 1990)Google Scholar; Muncy, Robyn, Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform, 1890-1935 (New York, 1991)Google Scholar; Kunzel, Regina G., Fallen Women, Problem Girls: Unmarried Mothers and the Professionalization of Social Work, 1890-1945 (New Haven, 1993)Google Scholar; Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks, Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880-1920 (Cambridge, MA, 1993): 185–229Google Scholar; Alexander, Ruth M., The “Girl” Problem: Female Sexual Delinquency in New York, 1900-1930 (Ithaca, NY, 1995)Google Scholar. Gaines, Kevin K., Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996), 1–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar, uses the term “aspiring” to describe African Americans who sought middle-class status but because of discrimination could not attain its trappings. Lomawaima, K. Tsianina, “Domesticity in the Federal Indian Schools: The Power of Authority over Mind and Body,” in Deviant Bodies: Critical Perspectives on Difference in Science and Popular Culture, ed. Terry, Jennifer and Urla, Jacqueline (Bloomington, 1995), 197–218Google Scholar; Jacobs, Margaret, Engendered Encounters: Feminism and Pueblo Cultures, 1879-1934 (Lincoln, NE, 1999)Google Scholar; Devens, Carol, “‘If We Get the Girls, We Get the Race’: Missionary Education of Native American Girls,” in American Nations: Encounters in Indian Country, 1850 to the Present, ed. Hoxie, Frederick E., Mancall, Peter C., and Merrell, James H. (New York, 2001), 157–71, esp. 166Google Scholar.

¹³ Degler, , At Odds, 145–77Google Scholar; Gordon, , Woman's BodyGoogle Scholar; Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll, “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America,” in A Heritage of Her Own, 311–42Google Scholar; Smith-Rosenberg, , “Discourses of Sexuality and Subjectivity: The New Woman, 1870-1936,” in Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Duberman, Martin, Vicinus, Martha, and Chauncey, George Jr, (New York, 1990), 264–80Google Scholar; and Newton, Esther, “The Mythic Mannish Lesbian: Radclyffe Hall and the New Woman,” in Hidden from History, 281–93Google Scholar; Faderman, Lillian, Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth-Century America (New York, 1991)Google Scholar; Ware, Susan, Partner and I: Molly Dewson, Feminism, and New Deal Politics (New Haven, 1987)Google Scholar; Orleck, Annelise, Common Sense and a Little Fire: Women and Working-Class Politics in the United States, 1900-1965 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1995), 123-47, 282-85Google Scholar; Freedman, Estelle, “Separatism as a Strategy: Female Institution Building and American Feminism, 1870-1930,” Feminist Studies 5 (Fall 1979): 512–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moran, Jeffrey P., Teaching Sex: The Shaping of Adolescence in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, MA, 2000), 46–47, 54-55Google Scholar; Wheeler, Leigh Ann, Against Obscenity: Reform and the Politics of Womanhood in America, 1873-1935 (Baltimore, 2004)Google Scholar.

¹⁴ Rothman, Ellen K., Hands and Hearts: A History of Courtship in America (New York, 1984)Google Scholar: 157 and passim, and Rotundo, , American Manhood, 109–28Google Scholar. Despite the pervasive call in the prescriptive literature for wives' right to refuse marital intercourse, state law did not recognize marital rape in this era.

¹⁵ Degler, , At Odds, 178–226Google Scholar; Gordon, , Woman's Body, 148–55Google Scholar; Brodie, Janet Farrell, Contraception and Abortion in Nineteenth-Century America (Ithaca, NY, 1994)Google Scholar; Tone, Andrea, Devices and Desires: A History of Contraceptives in America (New York, 2001)Google Scholar; Reagan, Leslie J., When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine, and Law in the United States, 1867-1973 (Berkeley, 1997). Mosher's sample size was tiny and her white, middle-class, married informants self-selected, so it is suggestive rather than definitiveGoogle Scholar.

¹⁶ Rosen, Ruth, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore, 1982)Google Scholar; Peiss, Kathy, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986)Google Scholar; Meyerowitz, Joanne, Women Adrift: Independent Wage Earners in Chicago, 1880-1930 (Chicago, 1988)Google Scholar; Hobson, Barbara Meil, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (1987; Chicago, 1990)Google Scholar; Lunbeck, Elizabeth, “‘A New Generation of Women’: Progressive Psychiatrists and the Hypersexual Female,” Feminist Studies 13 (Fall 1987): 513–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wood, Sharon, The Freedom of the Streets: Work, Citizenship, and Sexuality in a Gilded Age City (Chapel Hill, NC, 2005)Google Scholar; Cott, Nancy, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven, 1987)Google Scholar; Alexander, , The “Girl” ProblemGoogle Scholar; Kunzel, , Fallen Women, Problem GirlsGoogle Scholar; Faderman, , Odd GirlsGoogle Scholar; Newton, , “The Mythic, Mannish Lesbian.”Google Scholar

¹⁷ Sears, Hal D., The Sex Radicals: Free Love in High Victorian America (Lawrence, KS, 1977), 183–203Google Scholar; Gordon, , Woman's Body, Woman's RightGoogle Scholar; Horowitz, , Rereading SexGoogle Scholar; Reagan, , When Abortion Was a CrimeGoogle Scholar; Rosen, , The Lost SisterhoodGoogle Scholar; Hobson, , Uneasy VirtueGoogle Scholar; Langum, , Crossing Over the LineGoogle Scholar. Some male prostitutes existed, and some boys bartered sex for social and economic support, but the vast majority were female, and female prostitution was the focus of social concern and reform efforts; see Chauncey, George, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Makings of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York, 1994): 141–45Google Scholar

¹⁸ See the sources in note 16; also Brandt, Allan M., No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880, rev. ed. (New York, 1987): 52–121Google Scholar; Briggs, Laura, Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, Science, and U.S. Imperialism in Puerto Rico (Berkeley, 2002), 21–73Google Scholar; Moran, , Teaching Sex, 23–67Google Scholar; Carter, Julian B., “Birds, Bees, and Venereal Disease: Toward an Intellectual History of Sex Education,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 10 (April 2001): 213–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wheeler, , Against Obscenity, passimGoogle Scholar; Stansell, Christine, American Moderns: Bohemian New York and the Creation of a New Century (New York, 2000), 236–40Google Scholar; Kevles, Daniel J., In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Cambridge, MA, 1985): 41–69Google Scholar; Kline, Wendy, Building a Better Race: Gender, Sexuality, and Eugenics from the Turn of the Century to the Baby Boom (Berkeley, 2001)Google Scholar; Larsen, Edward J., Sex, Race, and Science: Eugenics in the Deep South (Baltimore, 1995)Google Scholar.

¹⁹ Horowitz, , Rereading SexGoogle Scholar; she details the four tendencies on pp. 5-7.

²⁰ Hall, Jacqueline Dowd, Revolt Against Chivalry: Jessie Daniel Ames and the Women's Campaign Against Lynching (New York, 1979)Google Scholar; Bederman, Gail, Manliness and Civilisation: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago, 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth, Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896-1920 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996)Google Scholar; Simon, Bryant, “The Appeal of Cole Blease of South Carolina: Race, Class, and Sex in the New South,” Journal of Southern History 63 (February 1996): 57–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hodes, Martha, White Women, Black Men: Illicit Sex in the Nineteenth-Century South (New Haven, 1997)Google Scholar; Findlay, Eileen Suarez, Imposing Decency: The Politics of Sexuality and Race in Puerto Rico, 1870-1920 (Durham, NC, 1999)Google Scholar; Duggan, lisa, Sapphic Slashers: Sex, Violence, and American Modernity (Durham, NC, 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Briggs, , Reproducing EmpireGoogle Scholar; Lunbeck, , “‘A New Generation of Women.’” For an international comparison of the intersection between sex and race, seeGoogle ScholarHelg, Aline, “Black Men, Racial Stereotyping, and Violence in the U.S. South and Cuba at the Turn of the Century,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 42 (July 2000): 576–604CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²¹ For examples, see Boag, Peter, Same-Sex Affairs: Constructing and Controlling Homosexuality in the Pacific Northwest (Berkeley, 2003), 1–86Google Scholar; Wood, , Freedom of the Streets, 132–57Google Scholar; see also Dubinsky, Karen, Improper Advances: Rape and Heterosexual Conflict in Ontario, 1880-1929 (Chicago, 1993)Google Scholar.

²² Peiss, , Cheap Amusements, 8Google Scholar.

²³ Gabbert, Ann R., “Prostitution and Moral Reform in the Borderlands: El Paso, 1890-1920,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 12 (October 2003): 575–604CrossRefGoogle Scholar, largely assimilates this atypical city to the national “norm”; more persuasively, Ullman, Sharon R., Sex Seen: The Emergence of Modern Sexuality in America (Berkeley, 1997)Google Scholar; Boag, , Same-Sex AffairsGoogle Scholar; and Wood, , Freedom of the Streets,Google Scholar locate the cities of Sacramento, Portland, and Davenport within mobile circuits of labor, commercial amusements, and newly emerging ideas about sex, sex work, class, and gender. On cross-class relations among women, see Alexander, , The “Girl” ProblemGoogle Scholar, and Kunzel, , Fallen Women, Problem GirlsGoogle Scholar. Hodes, Martha, ed., Sex, hove, Race: Crossing Boundaries in North American History (New York, 1999)Google Scholar, foregrounds the comparative not only by examining relations across the color line but also by including essays on a wide range of social groups.

²⁴ Higginbotham, , Righteous Discontent, 185–229Google Scholar; Giddings, , When and Where I Enter, 85–94Google Scholar; Bederman, , Manliness and Civilisation, 45–76Google Scholar; Gilmore, , Gender and Jim CrowGoogle Scholar, DuCille, Ann, The Coupling Convention: Sex, Text, and Tradition in Black Women's Fiction (New York, 1993)Google Scholar; Gunning, Sandra, Race, Rape, and Lynching: The Red Record of American Literature (New York, 1996)Google Scholar; Carby, Hazel, Reconstructing Womanhood: The Emergence of the Afro-American Woman Novelist (New York, 1987)Google Scholar; Mitchell, Michele, Righteous Propagation: African Americans and the Politics of Racial Destiny after Reconstruction (Chapel Hill, NC, 2004)Google Scholar; English, Daylanne, Unnatural Selections: Eugenics in A-merican Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance (Chapel Hill, NC, 2004)Google Scholar; Gaines, Kevin, Uplifting the RaceGoogle Scholar; see also Hunter, Tera, To Joy My Freedom: Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors After the Civil War (Cambridge, MA, 1997), 169–86, on working-class womenGoogle Scholar; Somerville, Siobhan B., Queering the Color Line: Race and the Invention of Homosexuality in American Culture (Durham, NC, 2000)Google Scholar; Stokes, Mason, The Color of Sex: Whiteness, Heterosexuality, and the Fictions of White Supremacy (Durham, NC, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Some literature on respectability and resistance to racism among Hispanics also exists: Garza-Falcón, Leticia M., Gente Decente: A Borderlands Response to the Rhetoric of Dominance (Austin, TX, 1998)Google Scholar; Mitchell, Pablo, Coyote Nation: Sexuality, Race, and Conquest in Modernising New Mexico, 1880-1920 (Chicago, 2005), 52–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁵ Horowitz, , Rereading Sex, 5–7Google Scholar; Wood, both, Freedom of the StreetsGoogle Scholar, and Dubinsky, , Improper AdvancesGoogle Scholar, show all the assumptions of vernacular sexuality at work in allegations and trials for rape.

²⁶ Chauncey, , Gay New York, 72Google Scholar, points out the lack of research on ethnic minorities; see also Rosen, , The Lost Sisterhood, 139Google Scholar; Ewen, Elizabeth, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York, 1985), 42–47Google Scholar; Diner, Hasia, Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1983), 16-29, 114–19Google Scholar; Sanchez, George J., Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (New York, 1993), 99-104, 129–50Google Scholar; Yung, Judy, “The Social Awakening of Chinese American Women as Reported in Chung Sai Yat Po,” in Unequal Sisters, 195–207Google Scholar; Stansell, , American Moderns, 120–44Google Scholar; Sears, , The Sex RadicalsGoogle Scholar, and Spurlock, John C., Free Love: Marriage and Middle-Class Radicalism in America, 1825-1860 (New York, 1988)Google Scholar, document the American libertarian-anarchist critique of marriage.

²⁷ Chauncey, , Gay New YorkGoogle Scholar; Chudacoff, Howard, The Age of the Bachelor: Creating an American Subculture (Princeton, 1999)Google Scholar; Stansell, , American Moderns, 225–308Google Scholar.

²⁸ Marsh, Margaret, “Suburban Men and Masculine Domesticity, 1870-1915,”Google Scholar and Griswold, Robert L., “Divorce and the Legal Redefinition of Victorian Manhood,” in Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America, ed. Carnes, Mark C. and Griffen, Clyde (Chicago, 1990), 111-27 and 96-110Google Scholar, respectively; Griswold explicidy argues that not feminism but a reconfigured patriarchy governed changes in husbands' prerogatives. See also Stansell, , American Moderns, 225–308Google Scholar; Peiss, , Cheap Amusements, 21–29Google Scholar. Except for the equivocal evidence in Mosher's survey that twentieth-century, middle-class, married white women enjoyed sex more than their nineteenth-century sisters, we know little about how an emergent sexual liberalism translated into marital relations; see Stearns, and Stearns, , “Victorian Sexuality,”Google Scholar and Lunbeck, “‘New Generation.’” On the structural imperatives supporting heterosexuality, including marriage, see Berlant, Lauren and Warner, Michael, “Sex in Public,” in Intimacy, ed. Berlant, Lauren (Chicago, 2000), 311–30Google Scholar.

²⁹ Many of the best-known and agenda-setting works cast Manhattan as epitome and bellwether for the nation: Horowitz, , Rereading SexGoogle Scholar, Gilfoyle, Timothy, City of Eros: New York City, Prostitution, and the Commercialisation of Sex, 1790-1920 (New York, 1992)Google Scholar; Stansell, Christine, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1986)Google Scholar and American Moderns; Peiss, , Cheap AmusementsGoogle Scholar; and Chauncey, George, Gay New YorkGoogle Scholar. A few examine other large cities: Meyerowitz, , Women Adrift, on ChicagoGoogle Scholar; on Francisco, San, Shah, Nayan, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco's Chinatown (Berkeley, 2001), 77–104Google Scholar; Long, Alecia P., The Great Southern Babylon: Sex, Race, and Respectability in New Orleans, 1865-1920 (Baton Rouge, LA, 2004)Google Scholar, on New Orleans; Wheeler, , Against Obscenity, on MinneapolisGoogle Scholar. Earlier works, such as Haller, and Haller, , The Physician and Victorian SexualityGoogle Scholar, Degler, , At OddsGoogle Scholar; Gordon, , Woman's BodyGoogle Scholar, Rosen, , Lost SisterhoodGoogle Scholar, claim national scope, and Hobson, , Uneasy VirtueGoogle Scholar, offers an international comparison. A growing number of works now treat smaller cities, including Ullman, Sex Seen, on Sacramento, California; Boag, , Same-Sex AffairsGoogle Scholar, on Pordand, Oregon; and Wood, Freedom of the Streets, on Davenport, Iowa. On the rural South, see Howard, John, Men Like That: A Southern Queer History (Chicago, 1999)Google Scholar, and Ownby, Ted, Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865-1920 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1990)Google Scholar; work on other cities and rural areas exists in the periodical literature. See Dubinsky, , Improper Advances, 143–62Google Scholar, on perceptions and reality of sexual safety in rural Ontario, Canada.

³⁰ Erdman, Andrew L., Blue Vaudeville: Sex, Morals and the Mass Marketing of Amusement, 1895-1915 (Jefferson, NC, 2004), 83–126Google Scholar; Ullman, , Sex Seen, 45–71Google Scholar; Long, , Great Southern Babylon, 60–101Google Scholar; Wheeler, , Against Obscenity, movie tide: 20, and passimGoogle Scholar; see also Mizejewski, Linda, Ziegfeld Girl: Image and Icon in Culture and Cinema (Durham, NC, 1999)Google Scholar, and May, Lary, Screening Out the Past: The Birth of Mass Culture and the Motion Picture Industry (New York, 1980), 96–146Google Scholar.

³¹ Peiss, , Cheap AmusementsGoogle Scholar, is among the few who raise the question explicitly; Lunbeck, , “‘A New Generation,’” 540n2Google Scholar, notes the lack of information about sexual change in the working class; Bailey, Beth, From Front Porch to Back Seat: Courtship in Twentieth-Century America (Baltimore, 1988)Google Scholar; see also Erenberg, , Steppin' OutGoogle Scholar, Meyerowitz, , Women AdriftGoogle Scholar, Chudacoff, , Age of the BachelorGoogle Scholar, and, for the 1920s, Fass, Paula, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s (New York, 1977)Google Scholar.

³² Davidson, Arnold I., The Emergence of Sexuality: Historical Epistemology and the Formation of Concepts (Cambridge, MA, 2001)Google Scholar, exemplifies the strengths and weaknesses of focusing exclusively on medical writings; D'Emilio, , “Capitalism and Gay Identity,” in The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader, ed. Abelove, Henry, Barale, Michele Aina, and Halperin, David M. (New York, 1993): 467–76Google Scholar; Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll, “Female Worlds of Love and Ritual”Google Scholar; Chauncey, , Gay New YorkGoogle Scholar; Katz, , hove Stories and The Invention of Heterosexuality (New York, 1996)Google Scholar; Faderman, , Odd GirlsGoogle Scholar; Vicinus, Martha, “‘They Wonder to Which Sex I Belong’: The Historical Roots of Modern Lesbian Identity,” Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader, 432–52Google Scholar, and Intimate Friends: Women Who Loved Women, 1778-1928 (Chicago, 2004)Google Scholar; Gustav-Wrathall, John Donald, Take the Young Stranger by the Hand: Same-Sex Relations and the YMCA (Chicago, 1998)Google Scholar; Boag, , Same-Sex AffairsGoogle Scholar; Duggan, , Sapphic SlashersGoogle Scholar; Abelove, Henry, “Freud, Male Homosexuality, and the Americans,” in Gay and Lesbian Studies Reader, 381-93Google Scholar; Weeks, Jeffrey, “Movements of Affirmation: Sexual Meanings and Homosexual Identities,” in Passion and Power: Sexuality in History, 70–86Google Scholar; Hansen, Bert, “‘American Physicians’ ‘Discovery’ of Homosexuals, 1880-1900: A New Diagnosis in a Changing Society,” in Framing Disease: Studies in Cultural History ed. Rosenberg, Charles E. and Golden, Janet (New Brunswick, NJ, 1992), 104–33Google Scholar; Bullough, Vern, Science in the bedroom (New York, 1994)Google Scholar; Terry, Jennifer and Urla, Jacqueline, eds., Deviant bodiesGoogle Scholar; Rosario, Vernon A., ed., Science and Homosexualities (New York, 1997)Google Scholar; Bland, Lucy and Doan, Laura, eds., Sexology in Culture: Labelling [sic/ bodies and Desires (Chicago, 1998)Google Scholar; Somerville, , Queering the Color LineGoogle Scholar; Stokes, , The Color of Sex.Google Scholar

³³ Gustav-Wrathall, , Take the Young Stranger, 70–115Google Scholar; Vicinus, , Intimate Friends, 113–42Google Scholar; Cott, , Grounding, 143–74Google Scholar. Most scholars take the role of youths in pioneering sexual change for granted, assuming the power of natural urges among adolescents. Given social expectations that young people, especially men, would be sexually curious and should properly be seeking marriage partners, it is not surprising to find plentiful records of adult anxieties about youth sexual practices and fond or guilty accounts of pre-marital activities. However, much evidence suggests that married couples determined to limit childbearing contributed far more construction of age as we are of other categories.

³⁴ Briggs, , Reproducing EmpireGoogle Scholar; Suarez-Findlay, , Imposing DecencyGoogle Scholar, Rafael, Vicente, White hove and Other Events in Filipino History (Durham, NC, 2000)Google Scholar; Stern, Alexandra, “Buildings, Boundaries, and Blood: Medicalization and Nation-Building on the U.S.-Mexico Border, 1910-1930,” Hispanic American Historical Review 79 (February 1999): 41–81Google Scholar; Lomawaima, , “Domesticity in the Federal Indian Schools”Google Scholar; Devens, , “‘If We Get the Girls, We Get the Race,’”Google Scholar; Silva, Noenoe K., “Talking Back to Law and Empire: Hula in Hawaiian-Language Literature in 1861,” in IMW & Empire in the Pacific: Fiji and Hawai'i, ed. Merry, Sally Engle and Brenneis, Donald (Santa Fe, NM, 2004), 101–22Google Scholar; Stoler, Ann Laura, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule (Berkeley, 2002)Google Scholar and Race and the Education of Desire.

³⁵ Non-white travelers typically had very different understandings of the politics of their presence and the meaning of U.S. rule, but they could not evade the consequences of imperial sexuality. The literature on contemporary sex tourism is extensive, but historians have only recendy begun to address it, with the notable exception of treatments of 1920s Harlem; see Lewis, David Levering, When Harlem Was in Vogue (New York, 1982)Google Scholar; Heap, Chad C., “‘Slumming’: Sexuality, Race, and Urban Commercial Leisure, 1900-1940” (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 2000)Google Scholar; Mumford, Kevin J., Intercoms: Black/White Sex Districts in Chicago and New York in the Early Twentieth Century (New York, 1997)Google Scholar; Schwartz, Rosalie, Pleasure Island: Tourism and Temptation in Cuba (Lincoln, NE, 1997)Google Scholar; Chauncey, , Gay New York, 36–41Google Scholar; Cocks, Catherine, “Climate and Character,” unpublished paper presented at the American Society for Environmental History/National Council on Public History conference, 2004Google Scholar, and “Eternal Summer: Tourism, Nature, and the Sexual Revolution, 1880-1920,” unpublished paper presented at the American Studies Association conference, 2004Google Scholar.

³⁶ Wood, , Freedom of the Streets, offers a particularly effective portrayal of this social outlookGoogle Scholar.

³⁷ Sears, Hal D., The Sex Radicals, 110-11; 225–26Google Scholar; Chauncey, , Gay New York, 61Google Scholar; Long, , The Great Southern Babylon, 205Google Scholar; Boag, , Same-Sex Affairs, 89–153Google Scholar; Ullman, , Sex Seen, 66, 154–57Google Scholar; on the potential role of sexual practices in demographic change, see Abelove, Henry, “Some Speculations on the History of Sexual Intercourse during the Long Eighteenth Century in England,” in Abelove, , Deep Gossip (Minneapolis, 2003), 21–28Google Scholar.

³⁸ Somerville, , Queering the Color LineGoogle Scholar, Stokes, The Color of Race; Duggan, , Sapphic SlasherrGoogle Scholar, Moran, , Teaching SexGoogle Scholar; Carter, , “Birds, Bees”Google Scholar; Tomes, Nancy, The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, MA, 1998)Google Scholar.

³⁹ Gustav-Wrathall, , Take the Young StrangerGoogle Scholar, Putney, Clifford, Muscular Christianity: Manhood and Sports in Protestant America, 1880-1920 (Cambridge, MA, 2001)Google Scholar; Vandenberg-Daves, Jodi, “The Manly Pursuit of a Partnership between the Sexes: The Debate over YMCA Programs for Women and Girls, 1914-1933,” Journal of American History 78 (March 1992): 1324–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Satter, Beryl, Each Mind a Kingdom: American Women, Sexual Purity, and the New Thought Movement, 1875-1920 (Berkeley, 1999)Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Satter, , Every Mind a Kingdom, is a good exampleGoogle Scholar. The conflation is at once a strength of her study-women don't just seek sexual satisfaction, they seek power-and a weakness; she doesn't address sexuality or the problem of the body for women as directiy as she might.