¹ “Speech at Alumni Banquet,” Folder “Football,” Box 2, Frederick Jackson Turner Papers, State Historical Society of Wisconsin Archives, Madison. See also Curti, Merle and Carstensen, Vernon, The University of Wisconsin: A History, 1848–1925 (Madison, 1949), 2:536–37Google Scholar; Watterson, John Sayle, College Football: History, Spectacle, Controversy (Baltimore, 2000), 85–86Google Scholar.

² For an overview of the 1905–06 football “crisis,” see Watterson, College Football, 80–98.

³ “Ned” Jordan was 23 years old at the time of publication; later, he founded the Jordan Motor Car Company. Lackey, James H., The Jordan Automobile: A History (New York, 2005)Google Scholar, esp. 5–7.

⁴ The Wisconsin article in Collier's, Nov. 18, 1905, 22–23, was the second in the “Buying Football Victories” series, which weekly ran from Nov. 11 to Dec. 2 and also discussed the universities of Chicago, Illinois, Michigan, and Minnesota, as well as Northwestern University.

⁵ Watterson, College Football, 85.

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¹⁵ In 1900 about 4 percent of American youth, ages 18–21 (150,000) attended college (compared to less than 2 percent in 1880); see Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz, Campus Life: Undergraduate Cultures from the End of the Eighteenth Century to the Present (New York, 1987), 5–6Google Scholar, 8. The 1905 enrollment numbers (originally recorded in the Boston Evening Transcript) are available in “Michigan is Now Largest American University,” Michigan Daily, Oct. 19, 1905, 1, in Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter BHL). Among the other universities examined by Edward S. Jordan in 1905, Minnesota, Illinois, and Northwestern each had 2,700–3,700 students. The 1870s numbers are from Peckham, Howard H., The Making of the University of Michigan: 1817–1992, eds. Steneck, Margaret L. and Steneck, Nicholas H. (1967; Ann Arbor, 1994), 77–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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²² Gorn, Elliott J., The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (Ithaca, NY, 1986), esp. 64–65Google Scholar, 179–227; Rosenzweig, Roy, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers & Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870–1920 (New York, 1983)Google Scholar.

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²⁴ See Oriard, Reading Football, 169–75, 207–08.

²⁵ “Football Rally,” Daily Palo Alto, Nov. 7, 1901, microfilm copy in Green Library, Stanford University; Howard, Burt Estes, Education and Democracy (Los Angeles, 1901), 18–19Google Scholar, 41–42, 45.

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²⁹ Curti and Carstensen, University of Wisconsin, 2:3–4, 23–24, 132; Unger, Nancy, Fighting Bob La Follette: The Righteous Reformer (Chapel Hill, 2000), 121–22Google Scholar; Flanagan, America Reformed, 86–87; Recchiuti, John L., Civic Engagement: Social Science and Progressive-Era Reform in New York City (Philadelphia, 2007)Google Scholar, 110; McCarthy, Charles, The Wisconsin Idea (New York, 1912)Google Scholar; Howe, Frederic C., Wisconsin: An Experiment in Democracy (New York, 1912)Google Scholar.

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³¹ Steffens, Lincoln, “Sending a State to College: What the University of Wisconsin is Doing for Its People,” American Magazine, Feb. 1909, 349–50Google Scholar, 363–64.

³² Turner quoted in McCarthy, Wisconsin Idea, 124–25, 139–40. Turner was teaching at Harvard by 1912.

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³⁵ Ross, E.A., Social Psychology: An Outline and Source Book (New York, 1908), 43–83Google Scholar. Ross's early works included Social Control: A Survey of the Foundations of Order (New York, 1901). On the general intellectual critique of mass culture during the Progressive Era, see Gorman, Paul R., Left Intellectuals and Popular Culture in Twentieth-Century America (Chapel Hill, 1996), 34–52Google Scholar.

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³⁷ On Harper's involvement in Chautauqua, see Goodspeed, Thomas Wakefield, William Rainey Harper: First President of the University of Chicago (Chicago, 1928), 67–108Google Scholar; Storr, Richard J., Harper's University: The Beginnings (Chicago, 1966)Google Scholar, 19, 327–28.

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³⁹ Lissak, Pluaralism and Progressives, 6; Davis, Spearheads for Reform, 44.

⁴⁰ Psychologists were especially adept at using Darwinian categories to explain football; see, for example, Patrick, G.T.W., “The Psychology of Football,” American Journal of Psychology 14 (1903): 368–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Patrick alluded to Herbert Spencer's 1859 essay, “Physical Education.” Bannister, Although Robert, Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Thought (Philadelphia, 1979)Google Scholar, argued that social Darwinism as traditionally construed is largely a myth, many turn-of-the-century intellectuals and social commentators did ascribe to a version of this doctrine.

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⁴² Thomas, W.I., “The Gaming Instinct,” American Journal of Sociology 6 (May 1901): 750–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 758–61. Thomas noted that some workers, including policemen, firemen, and bartenders, could still “see or join a fight” while at work.

⁴³ Turner asserted that because of football, there was no need to worry about “pale and ascetic students in their cloisters, lacking a physical basis for the intellectual life”; “Speech at Alumni Banquet,” 1, 2. On the “strenuous life,” see Roosevelt, Theodore, The Strenuous Life: Essays and Addresses (1899; New York, 1905), 1–21Google Scholar. Drawing on Turner's famous frontier thesis, one of Turner's graduate students wrote an article explaining American sport as an historical result of the closing of the frontier: Paxson, Frederic L., “The Rise of Sport,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 4 (Sept. 1917): 143–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁴ Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, 77–120; Ross, Dorothy, G. Stanley Hall: The Psychologist as Prophet (Chicago, 1972), esp. 314–15Google Scholar, 326.

⁴⁵ Thomas, “Gaming Instinct,” 760, 753. Gorn argues that the prizefighting ring was a democratic space where boxers “symbolically mocked the liberal belief that atomistic competition led to social good”; Manly Art, 66.

⁴⁶ van Dyke, Paul, “Athletics and Education,” The Outlook, Feb. 11, 1905, 390–92Google Scholar. This article was frequently cited at the time; see, for example, White, J. William, “Football and Its Critics,” The Outlook, Nov. 18, 1905, 662–69Google Scholar. On The Outlook as a reform journal, see Mott, Frank Luther, A History of American Magazines, 1885–1905 (Cambridge, MA, 1957)Google Scholar, 59; Peterson, Theodore, Magazines in the Twentieth Century, 2nd ed. (Urbana, 1964), 156–57Google Scholar. On Van Dyke, see his obituary in the New York Times, Aug. 31, 1933, 17.

⁴⁷ Veblen, Thorstein, The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899; New York, 1967), 255–56Google Scholar, 261–63.

⁴⁸ Veblen, Thorstein, The Higher Learning in America: A Memorandum on the Conduct of Universities by Business Men (1918; New York, 1957), 90–92Google Scholar, 97.

⁴⁹ On academic freedom in the Progressive Era, see Hofstadter, Richard and Metzger, Walter P., The Development of Academic Freedom in the United States (New York, 1955), 420–80Google Scholar; on the creation of tenure as a safeguard for academics, see Menand, Louis, The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America (New York, 2001), 411–20Google Scholar.

⁵⁰ Veblen's influential, tempestuous career included brief stints at Chicago, Stanford, Missouri, and the New School for Social Research; on his academic trajectory, see Tilman, Rick, The Intellectual Legacy of Thorstein Veblen: Unresolved Issues (Westport, CT, 1996), 21–24Google Scholar; Edgell, Stephen, Veblen in Perspective: His Life and Thought (Armonk, NY, 2001), 19–20Google Scholar, 24–25. On Veblen's dismissal from Stanford and the professional issues that it raised with regard to the early 1900s academy, see Reuben, Julie A., The Making of the Modern University: Intellectual Transformation and the Marginalization of Morality (Chicago, 1996), 195–200Google Scholar.

⁵¹ Van Dyke, “Athletics and Education,” 389–90.

⁵² On the fear of chance and the anti-gambling crusades of the Progressive Era, see Lears, Jackson, Something for Nothing: Luck in America (New York, 2003), 194–97Google Scholar.

⁵³ Van Dyke, “Athletics and Education,” 390–92.

⁵⁴ Ibid., 392–93. On the gendered implications of “hysteria,” see Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll, “The Hysterical Woman: Sex Roles and Role Conflict in Nineteenth-Century America” in Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York, 1985): 197–216Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Turner, “Speech at Alumni Banquet,” 1, 2.

⁵⁶ Watterson, College Football, 85–92; Curti and Carstensen, University of Wisconsin, 2:537–40. The Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives was not yet the Big Ten, as Ohio State University did not join until 1912.

⁵⁷ Turner, “Speech at Alumni Banquet,” 1–4.

⁵⁸ Thomas, “Gaming Instinct,” 750–53, 758–61.

⁵⁹ See, for example, Veysey, Emergence. On the rise of the social science disciplines, see Ross, Origins of American Social Science.

⁶⁰ Ross, Social Psychology, 84, 87.

⁶¹ See Oriard, Reading Football, esp. 57–133.

⁶² Watterson, College Football, 70–72, and Watterson, “Gridiron Crisis of 1905.”

⁶³ Jordan, “Buying Football Victories,” Collier's, Nov. 11 through Dec. 2, 1905.

⁶⁴ Wiebe, Robert H., The Search for Order, 1877–1920 (New York, 1967)Google Scholar. The NCAA's first president, Major Palmer Pierce of West Point, observed that the organization was founded as an advisory (not a governing) agency; Palmer E. Pierce, untitled address, Proceedings of the Third Annual Convention of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States, New York City, January 2, 1909, 27–29. One historian of the NCAA has followed Pierce's argument, insisting that the organization was designed to “educate,” not “legislate”: Paul Stagg, “The Development of the National Collegiate Athletics Association in Relationship to Intercollegiate Athletics in the United States” (PhD diss., New York University, 1946), 36.

⁶⁵ Watterson, College Football, 74–92.

⁶⁶ On national interinstitutional organizations for higher education in the early 1900s, see Hawkins, Hugh, Banding Together: The Rise of National Associations in American Higher Education, 1887–1950 (Baltimore, 1992)Google Scholar. Hawkins only mentions the NCAA in passing (38, 102).

⁶⁷ On Harper's early endorsement of football and hiring of Stagg, see Lester, Stagg's University, 17–19.

⁶⁸ Lester, Stagg's University, 18; Herrick, , Chimes (New York, 1926), 7, 9, 17, 20, 24–25Google Scholar.

⁶⁹ On the circus in turn-of-the-century America, see Davis, Janet M., The Circus Age: Culture and Society under the American Big Top (Chapel Hill, 2002)Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ See Lester, Stagg's University, 67–68.

⁷¹ Harper, William Rainey, “The Business Side of the University” in The Trend in Higher Education, (Chicago, 1905), 175–76Google Scholar.

⁷² Harper, “Shall College Athletics be Endowed?” in Trend in Higher Education, 277.

⁷³ Ibid., 278, 281.

⁷⁴ Angell to Van Hise, Dec. 24, 1903 (copy), folder 201, Box 6, James Burrill Angell Papers (hereafter JBA), BHL. Harper's Weekly, Sept. 3, 1904, 1358, 1367.

⁷⁵ Harper, “Shall College Athletics be Endowed?” 277, 281–82.

⁷⁶ See, for example, A.W. Whitney, Harry Beal Torrey, George C. Edwards, “Report on the Football Situation, by the Committee on Athletics of the Academic Council” (Berkeley, 1905), 2, (copy) in folder 217, Box 6, JBA, BHL.

⁷⁷ Horowitz, Campus Life, 113–14.

⁷⁸ “Doubt Free Sport Plan,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Oct. 27, 1903, 8. Field, the retail magnate, donated the land for the Chicago's athletic grounds, appropriately named Marshall Field; Lester, Stagg's University, 23–24.

⁷⁹ Shaw, “College Reform,” 724, 726–29. On Jack Johnson, see Ward, Geoffrey C., Unforgivable Blackness: The Rise and Fall of Jack Johnson (New York, 2004)Google Scholar. On segregation as a central characteristic of the Progressive Era and progressive thought, see McGerr, Fierce Discontent, 182–218.

⁸⁰ The University of Chicago abolished intercollegiate football in the mid-1930s, and Johns Hopkins abolished football ticket sales around the same time; Lester, Stagg's University, 164–86; French, John Calvin, A History of the University Founded by Johns Hopkins (Baltimore, 1946), 296–97Google Scholar. Reed College prohibited intercollegiate athletics from its 1910 inception; Horowitz, Campus Life, 106–07.

⁸¹ Watterson, College Football, 89–90; Lester, Stagg's University, 80.

⁸² Moran chaired Purdue's Faculty Committee on Athletics and served as its Big Ten faculty representative; Coulter, Stanley, “Thomas Francis Moran: An Appreciation,” Indiana Magazine of History 25 (Mar. 1929): 47–51Google Scholar; Hepburn, William Murray and Sears, Louis Martin, Purdue University: Fifty Years of Progress (Indianapolis, 1925)Google Scholar, 166.

⁸³ Moran, Thomas, “Courtesy and Sportsmanship in Intercollegiate Athletics,” American Physical Education Review 15 (Feb. 1910): 118–24Google Scholar. Chicago's Amos Alonzo Stagg, a professor of physical culture from the start of his career at Chicago, was one prominent exception to Moran's discussion of itinerant paid coaches.

⁸⁴ Wiebe, Search for Order, xiii-xiv.

⁸⁵ Moran, “Courtesy and Sportsmanship,” 118.

⁸⁶ Jordan, circular letter addressed to Van Hise, Feb. 5, 1908; Van Hise to Jordan (copy), Feb. 13, 1908, RG 4/10/01, Folder 6–76 (D.S. Jordan), University of Wisconsin Archives, Madison.

⁸⁷ Curti and Carstensen, University of Wisconsin, 2:537–42, 79.

⁸⁸ See Alston Ellis (President of Ohio University, Athens, Ohio) to Jordan, Dec. 14, 1909, Frames 687–88, Reel 65; and William H. Black (President of Missouri Valley College, Marshall, Missouri) to Jordan, Jan. 3, 1910, Frame 13, Reel 66, David Starr Jordan Papers, microfilm copy in Stanford University Archives, Stanford, California.

⁸⁹ On the origins of the professional coach, Watterson, College Football, 40–43, 55–56; Smith, Sports and Freedom, 147–64; Mrozek, Sport and American Mentality, 67–68, 73–75; Lester, Stagg's University, 17, 42–45; Gorn and Goldstein, American Sports, 232.

⁹⁰ The descriptor “big time,” commonly used both in popular discourse and in scholarly works like Ronald Smith's Sports and Freedom, derives from turn-of-the-century Vaudeville; see, for example, Snyder, Robert W., The Voice of the City: Vaudeville and Popular Culture in New York (New York, 1989), 47, 61–63Google Scholar.

⁹¹ Sperber, Murray, College Sports Inc.: The Athletic Department Versus the University (New York, 1990)Google Scholar; Sperber, , Beer and Circus: How Big-Time College Sports is Crippling Undergraduate Education (New York, 2000)Google Scholar, 27.

⁹² Nobles, Charlie, “Saban Goes to Alabama—Miami Fans Turn Crimson,” New York Times, Jan. 4, 2007Google Scholar; Zimbalist, Andrew, “Looks Like a Business—Should Be Taxed Like One,” New York Times, Jan. 7, 2007Google Scholar; Rhoden, William C., “Big Things Expected of Calipari at Kentucky,” New York Times, April 1, 2009Google Scholar.

⁹³ Lester notes this irony; see Stagg's University, 90–91.

⁹⁴ See Noble, David W., The Paradox of Progressive Thought (Minneapolis, 1958)Google Scholar.