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30 Keyssar, The Right to Vote, 5–7, 46–42; Free, Suffrage Reconstructed, 11–32; Welke, Barbara Young, Law and the Borders of Belonging in the Long Nineteenth Century United States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 6–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Field, The Struggle for Equal Adulthood, 53–60.

31 Gage, Woman as Inventor, 6. Although this claim remains unproven, Greene, through her second husband, invested in Whitney's gin. Lakwete, Angela, Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 56, 66Google Scholar.

32 Gage, Woman as Inventor, 8, 10–11, 16.

33 MacDonald, Anne L., Feminine Ingenuity: Women and Invention in America (New York: Ballantine Books, 1992), 6Google Scholar (citing 1858 letter to sister-in-law).

34 Gage, Woman as Inventor, 21.

35 “The Cotton Gin Invented by a Woman,” The Revolution, Apr. 30, 1868; “Woman an Inventor: Article II,” The Revolution, May 21, 1868; “Woman as Inventor: Article III,” The Revolution, Sept. 17, 1868; “Woman as Inventor, No. IV,” The Revolution, Jan. 14, 1869; “Woman as Inventor: Article Fifth,” The Revolution, Oct. 21, 1869.

36 DuBois, Suffrage, 80.

37 “Woman as Inventor,” Woman's Journal (Boston), Feb. 19, 1870.

38 Ibid.

39 “American Inventions,” Woman's Journal, May 14, 1870.

40 “Notes and News,” Woman's Journal, Oct. 15, 1870. For the Scientific American and its affiliated agency, see Michael Borut, “The Scientific American in Nineteenth-Century America” (PhD diss., New York University, 1977).

41 “Woman as Inventor,” The Revolution, Apr. 22, 1869.

42 “About Women,” Daily Evening Bulletin (San Francisco), Nov. 23, 1872.

43 Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon, GA), Apr. 15, 1873; North American and United States Gazette (Philadelphia), Apr. 8, 1873. The paper bag patentee was probably Margaret Knight. See Pilato, The Retrieval of a Legacy, 117–21.

44 Rydell, Robert W., All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876–1916 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 10Google Scholar; Virginia Grant Darney, “Women and World's Fairs: American International Expositions, 1876–1904” (PhD diss., Emory University, 1982), 12–64; Mary Francis Cordato, “Representing the Expansion of Women's Sphere: Women's Work and Culture at the World's Fairs of 1876, 1893 and 1904” (PhD diss., New York University, 1989), 23–195.

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46 Warner, Deborah J., “Women Inventors at the Centennial” in Dynamos and Virgins Revisited: Women and Technological Change in History, An Anthology, ed. Trescott, Martha (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1979), 102, 110–19Google Scholar; Cordato, “Representing the Expansion of Women's Sphere,” 447–52, 459–62 (seventy-eight inventions). See also Cordato, Mary Frances, “Toward a New Century: Women and the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition, 1876,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 107 (Jan. 1983): 113–35Google Scholar.

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48 Khan, “‘Not for Ornament,’” 168–69.

49 Pilato, The Retrieval of a Legacy, 82–86 (although she perfected the invention, Coston obtained the patent in her deceased husband's name).

50 Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S. 162 (1875); Flexner, Eleanor and Fitzpatrick, Ellen, Century of Struggle: The Woman's Rights Movement in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1959; enlarged ed., 1996), 161–65Google Scholar; and DuBois, Suffrage, 113–17.

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52 M. J. Gage, Letter to editor, Weekly Recorder (Tenafly, NJ), Nov. 9, 1876; Warner, Deborah, “The Women's Pavilion,” in 1876: A Centennial Exposition, ed. Post, Robert C. (Washington, DC: National Museum of History and Technology, 1976), 165–67Google Scholar.

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55 Khan, “‘Not for Ornament,’” 176–77.

56 “Woman's Pavilion,” The New Century for Woman (newspaper published by Woman's Centennial Committee, Philadelphia), Aug. 19, 1876, no. 15, 115.

57 Pfeffer, Miki, Southern Ladies and Suffragists: Julia Ward Howe and Women's Rights at the 1884 New Orleans World's Fair (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2014), 107CrossRefGoogle Scholar (quoting “World's Exposition: Grand Opening of the Woman's Department,” Daily Picayune (New Orleans), Mar. 4, 1885). For Howe, see Pfeffer, Southern Ladies and Suffragists, 28.

58 Warner, “Women Inventors at the Centennial,” 108; Pfeffer, Southern Ladies and Suffragists, 135.

59 Charlotte Smith, “Why I Became Interested in Woman Inventors,” The Woman Inventor, Apr. 1890; Stanley, Autumn, Raising More Hell and Fewer Dahlias: The Public Life of Charlotte Smith, 1840–1917 (Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press, 2009), 9–11, 48Google Scholar.

60 Stanton et al., History of Woman Suffrage, 3:305.

61 Rocky Mountain News (Denver), Apr. 6, 1881. See also “Women as Inventors,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Oct. 2, 1886 (fifty patents to women in six months).

62 Matilda Joslyn Gage, “Woman as an Inventor,” North American Review (Boston), May 1883, 484–86, 488.

63 “Woman as Inventors,” New York Times, Apr. 22, 1883.

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66 United States Patent Office, Women Inventors to Whom Patents Have Been Granted by the United States Government, 1790 to July 1, 1888 and Appendix no. 1–2, July 1, 1888 to March 1, 1895 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1888–95; appendices added in 1892 and 1895). This list was an undercounting. See Merritt, “Hypatia in the Patent Office,” 243n51, 244n54.

67 “Women as Inventors,” Boston Daily Globe, Jan. 16, 1889. See also “Women as Inventors,” Harper's Bazaar, Nov. 14, 1891, 866; Frances Stephens, “Women as Inventors,” Frank Leslie's Popular Monthly (New York), Aug. 1891, 2.

68 Ellis Meredith, “Things Done by Women,” Rocky Mountain News (Denver), Nov. 17, 1895; DuBois, Suffrage, 133–35.

69 Darney, “Women and World's Fairs,” 89.

70 Weimann, Jeanne Madeline, The Fair Women: The Story of the Woman's Building, World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago 1893 (Chicago: Academy Chicago Publishers, 1981), 393Google Scholar (quoting “Preliminary Prospectus”). For Board members, ibid., 27–28, 39–43, 47–48; and Cordato, “Representing the Expansion of Women's Sphere,” 204–24.

71 Letter from Bertha Palmer to Mary Lockwood, Aug. 10, 1891, Board of Lady Managers President's Letterbook, vol. 10, Board of Lady Managers Records, World's Columbian Exposition Collection, MSS lot W, Chicago History Museum, Chicago, IL. See also Weimann, The Fair Women, 9–10, 13, 17–19, 50, 428–29.

72 Weimann, The Fair Women, 429 (quoting letter from Palmer to Lockwood), 393–94.

73 Nancy Huston Banks, “Women's Inventions at the World's Fair,” Harper's Bazaar, Sept. 2, 1893, 712; Pilato, The Retrieval of a Legacy, 171n75; Pilato, Denise E., “Illumination or Illusion: Women Inventors at the 1893 World's Columbian Fair,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 109 (Winter 2016): 374, 389Google Scholar.

74 “In the Grand Stand: People of All Nations Fraternize with Each Other,” Chicago Daily Tribune, May 2, 1893.

75 “Career of Boston Woman Inventor,” Boston Daily Globe, Apr. 6, 1913.

76 “Women as Inventors: The American Woman in Action – XVII,” Frank Leslie's Popular Monthly, Apr. 1900, 13–19; “Rich Women Inventors,” Boston Daily Globe, Nov. 12, 1899; “Clever Women Inventors,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Nov. 19, 1899. See also T. Hart Anderson, “Women Inventors,” Godey's Magazine (Philadelphia), Jan. 1896, 55–58.

77 Mary Ogden White, “Has the War Made Women Inventors?,” Woman Citizen (Boston), June 9, 1917 (from 1917 to 1928, Woman's Journal was published as Woman Citizen).

78 Ibid.

79 Florence King, “Are Women Inventive?,” Woman Citizen, July 3, 1920; “King, Florence Embrey, 1870–1924,” Women's Legal History Biography Project, https://perma.cc/85E3-U2VU (accessed June 25, 2020).

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81 Mossell, Work of the Afro-American Woman, 25. See also Merritt, “Hypatia in the Patent Office,” 303–05; Sluby, Patricia Carter, The Inventive Spirit of African Americans: Patented Ingenuity (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004), 126–28Google Scholar.

82 Sluby, Inventive Spirit, 128.

83 Mossell, Work of the Afro-American Woman, 25; Joanne Braxton, “Introduction,” Work of the Afro-American Woman, xxvii–xxviii; Sluby, Inventive Spirit, 128.

84 U.S. Patent Office, Women Inventors to Whom Patents Have Been Granted, 34, appendix 1, 3. For racial identification, see Ives, Patricia Carter, “Patent and Trademark Innovations of Black Americans and Women,” Journal of the Patent Office Society 62 (Feb. 1980): 114Google Scholar; Sluby, Inventive Spirit, 126.

85 Ives, “Patent and Trademark Innovations,” 110; Sluby, Inventive Spirit, 128; Baker, Henry E., The Colored Inventor: A Record of Fifty Years (New York: The Crisis Publishing Co., 1913), 4Google Scholar.

86 Baker, The Colored Inventor, 3 (citing a campaign speech of a Maryland politician). See also Richard R. Wright, Sr., “The Negro as an Inventor,” African Methodist Episcopal Church Review, Apr. 1886, 398–99 (using patents to refute Ralls, The Negro Problem).

87 A Partial List of Patents Granted by the United States for Inventions by Afro-Americans, 26 Cong. Rec. 8382–83 (Aug. 10, 1894). For the source of list, see Swanson, Kara W., “Race and Selective Legal Memory: Reflections on Invention of a Slave,” Columbia Law Review 120, no. 4 (2020): 1077–1118Google Scholar, https://columbialawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Swanson-Race_and_Selective_Legal_Memory.pdf (accessed June 25, 2020).

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89 While proving the absence of an argument is difficult, I have found no discussion of inventors in, for example, The Woman's Era, the national newspaper of Black women, edited by suffragist Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin from 1894 to 1897, nor in the contributions of Black women to a suffrage symposium published in The Crisis, the magazine of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored Persons. See “Votes for Women,” The Crisis (New York), Aug. 1915, 178–92. For the rhetoric and tactics of Black suffragists, see sources above in note 10.

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96 Sluby, Inventive Spirit, 129; Massa, “Black Women in the ‘White City,’” 335.

97 Weimann, The Fair Women, 394–402; Hinsley, Savages and Scientists, 84–91.

98 Weimann, The Fair Women, 393 (quoting “Preliminary Prospectus”); Lockwood, Yesterdays in Washington, 2:103–04 (describing exhibits as displayed in the National Museum in Washington, DC).

99 Weimann, The Fair Women, 402.

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104 Terborg-Penn, African American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 108–35; Free; Suffrage Reconstructed, 133–61; Kraditor, Aileen S., The Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement, 1890–1920 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), 163–218Google Scholar; Sneider, Allison L., Suffragists in an Imperial Age: U.S. Expansion and the Woman Question, 1870–1929 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 61–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Newman, White Women's Rights, 116–31.

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106 Isenberg, Sex and Citizenship, 21, 29, 32–36; DuBois, Feminism and Suffrage, 40.

107 Keyssar, The Right to Vote, 105–16.

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111 For example, see fran pollner, “caty of the revolution & the cotton gin,” off our backs 3 (Feb./Mar. 1973): 25; Judy Chicago, The Dinner Party (1979), Heritage Floor tile, Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art at the Brooklyn Museum, New York. Cf. Stanley, Autumn, Mothers and Daughters of Invention: Notes for a Revised History of Technology (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1993), 32–33, 544–46Google Scholar.