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COUNCILS, PETITIONS, AND DELEGATIONS: CROW CREEK ACTIVISM AND THE PROGRESSIVE ERA IN CENTRAL SOUTH DAKOTA
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 29 March 2017
Abstract
While the Progressive Era in U.S. history featured varied examples of individuals and organizations turning to the federal government for reform and support, major narratives have mainly left American Indian tribal communities out of the story. This essay argues that Native people actually were quite active in their reservation communities during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Among other things, they held their own political councils, sent petitions to federal officials to promote their own agendas, and supported delegations to make their case in Washington, DC. This case study of activism on the Crow Creek Reservation in central South Dakota reveals numerous similarities and distinctions between Indian and non-Indian people in terms of progressive activism, while reinforcing the idea of American Indian political adaptations and cultural persistence during the Progressive Era.
- Type
- Articles
- Information
- The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era , Volume 16 , Issue 2 , April 2017 , pp. 206 - 227
- Copyright
- Copyright © Society for Historians of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 2017
Footnotes
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I would like to thank Fred Hoxie, Mary Wingerd, Darlene St. Clair, and the anonymous reviewers for their assistance with this article.
References
NOTES
1 Tribal Council to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, n.d.; Petition from Crow Creek Agency, Feb. 15, 1909 (including three pages of names listed), First Assistant Secretary to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Mar. 22, 1909; Crow Creek Superintendent to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Mar. 20, 1909, Central Classified Files (CCF), 1907-39, Crow Creek, Decimal 56, Box 6, Record Group [RG] 75, National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. The funds came from a federal account labeled “Indian Moneys, Proceeds of Labor (Crow Creek Indians).”
2 Yanktonais are one of seven divisions of the Oceti Sakowin or Seven Council Fires of the historic Sioux Confederation. For a greater description of the Oceti Sakowin and its constituent divisions, see Walker, James R., Lakota Society, ed. De Mallie, Raymond J. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1982), 3–14 Google Scholar. Howard, James H., “The Dakota or Sioux Indians: A Study in Human Ecology,” Anthropological Papers No. 2 (Vermillion, SD: Dakota Museum, 1966): 3Google Scholar, presents the original seven Sioux tribes as the following: the Mdewakantonwans, “People of Spirit Lake”; the Wahpekute, “Shooters Among the Leaves”; the Sisitonwan, or Sisseton, “People of the Boggy Grounds”; Wahpetonwan, or Wahpeton, “Dwellers Among the Leaves”; Ihanktonwan, or Yankton, “Dwellers at the End (Village)”; Ihanktonwana, or Yanktonai, “Little Dwellers at the End”; and Titonwan, or Teton, “Dwellers on the Plains.” “Dakotas” refer to the first four groups listed above and “Lakotas” refer to the Tetons. For more on artist John Saul, see Brokenleg, Martin and Hoover, Herbert T., Yanktonai Sioux Water Colors: Cultural Remembrances of John Saul (Sioux Falls, SD: Center for Western Studies, 1993)Google Scholar.
3 For a well-developed discussion of historiography of the era, see Johnston, Robert D., “The Possibilities of Politics: Democracy in America, 1877–1917” in American History Now, eds. Foner, Eric and McGirr, Lisa (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011), 96–124 Google Scholar.
4 For an example of work critical of federal actions in the nineteenth century, see Jackson, Helen Hunt, A Century of Dishonor: The Early Crusade for Indian Reform (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1881)Google Scholar; McDonnell, Janet, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 1887–1934 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991)Google Scholar. In A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate Indians, 1880–1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984)Google Scholar, Fred Hoxie argues that federal policy shifted from integration of Native people into American society as equals to prompting Native people more into a second-class status as laborers for American society.
5 Quotation by Parman, Donald, Indians and the American West in the Twentieth Century (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 11Google Scholar.
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10 See Michelle Wick Patterson, “The “Pencil in the Hand of the Indian’: Cross-Cultural Interactions in Natalie Curtis's The Indians' Book”; Katherine M. B. Osburn,“‘Any Sane Person’: Race, Rights, and Tribal Sovereignty in the Construction of the Dawes Rolls for the Choctaw Nation”; and Angela Firkus, “Agricultural Extension and the Campaign to Assimilate the Native Americans of Wisconsin, 1914–1932.” The issue concludes with a contextualizing essay, Smith, Sherry, “Comments: Native Americans and Indian Policy in the Progressive Era,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 9:4 (2010): 419–507 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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12 For more recent works on the SAI, with particular focus on its centennial, see Deloria, Philip J., “Four Thousand Invitations,” The American Indian Quarterly 73:3 (Summer 2013): 23–43 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Allen, Chadwick, “Introduction: Locating the Society of American Indians,” Studies in American Indian Literatures 25:2 (Summer 2013)Google Scholar; American Indian Quarterly 37:3 (Summer 2013)Google Scholar.
13 Society of American Indians. Report of the Executive Council on the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Society of American Indians (Washington, DC: GPO, 1912)Google Scholar.
14 Maier, Pauline, American Scripture: The Making of the Declaration of Independence (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997)Google Scholar, esp., “The ‘Other’ Declarations of Independence.”
15 Cahill's, Cathleen D. Federal Fathers and Mothers: A Social History of the United States Indian Service, 1869–1933 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011)Google Scholar shifts the focus to Native people employed in the federal Indian service who shaped policies, in particular, reservation communities.
16 Deloria, “Four Thousand Invitations.”
17 Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs [Hereafter ARCIA], 1911, Table 4, p. 77; Table 15, p. 134; Table 17, p. 146.
18 ARCIA, 1902, 329–30. For studies of these prominent boarding schools, see Adams, David Wallace, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875–1928 (Lawrence: University of Kansas, 1995)Google Scholar; Lindsey, Donal F., Indians at Hampton Institute, 1877–1923 (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1995)Google Scholar.
19 Both men were founding members and held several positions in the organization, with Dagenett as chair of initial Executive Committee and Eastman as chair of first Program Committee. See Ewen, Alexander and Wollock, Jeffrey, “Dagenett, Charles E.” Encyclopedia of the American Indian in the Twentieth Century (New York: Facts on File, 2014)Google Scholar.
20 Maddox, Lucy, Citizen Indians: Native American Intellectuals, Race and Reform (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), 15–16 Google Scholar.
21 See Deloria, “Four Thousand Invitations,” 39; and “American Master Narratives and the Problem of Indian Citizenship in the Gilded Age and Progressive Era,” 4.
22 United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Indian Affairs and Constitution and Bylaws of the Crow Creek Sioux Tribe of Fort Thompson, SD, Approved Apr. 26, 1949 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1957)
23 The Santee Sioux Reservation was established by Executive Order, Feb. 27, 1866.
24 For more on Whitestone Hill, see Jacobson, Clair, The Uncivil War at Whitestone Hill (LaCrosse, WI: Pine Tree Publishing, 2009)Google Scholar. See also Galler, Robert, “Sustaining the Sioux Confederation: Yanktonai Initiatives and Influence on the Northern Plains, 1680–1880,” Western Historical Quarterly 39:4 (Winter 2008): 467–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
25 According to ARCIA, 1868, over one thousand had gathered at Crow Creek, with members of Lower Yanktonais and Two Kettles bands both trying to farm near Fort Thompson.
26 For a detailed list of members of Drifting Goose's band at Crow Creek in August of 1879, see “Enumeration of the Band of Magaboda or ‘Drifting Goose’” made at Crow Creek Agency Dakota by Captain W. E. Dougherty, Acting Indian Agent on Aug. 4, 1879, Letters Received Concerning Drifting Goose Band of Sioux, 1878–80, Record Group 75 (RG 75), National Archives (NA), Washington, DC. For a discussion of Bull Ghost's migrations and relocation to Crow Creek, see Agent J. A. Stephan to Agent Dougherty, Aug. 20, 1880; and Stephan to Acting Commissioner Marble, Letters Received (LR), 1881, Box 2, No 534, RG 75, National Archives, Washington, DC.
27 See interview with Levi Big Eagle, Oct. 8, 1908, in “Reports on petition of Homer Clark and others,” Box 149, File 54, CCF, Crow Creek, 1373–1908, National Archives.
28 U.S. Senate, 48 Congress, 1 Session, 1884, Senate Report 283 (Serial 2174), “Testimony in Regard to the Sioux Indians, Dakota,” 111 [Hereafter 1884 Testimony].
29 According to ARCIA, 1880: 21–24, nearly two hundred families had established themselves on reservation lands and began an agrarian lifestyle at Crow Creek.
30 1884 Testimony, 107–11.
31 The Executive Documents of the Senate of the United States, Second Session of the 49th Congress, Special Session of the Senate Convened Mar. 4, 1885. Washington, DC: GPO, 1888, 260–62; ARCIA, 1887, 24; Editorial Article #3, New York Times, Apr. 22, 1887, 4.
32 Greene, Jerome, “The Sioux Land Commission of 1889: Prelude to Wounded Knee,” South Dakota History 1:1 (1970): 56–57 Google Scholar.
33 For a discussion of California tribes at Round Valley, see Bauer, William, We Are All Like Migrant Workers Here: Work, Community, and Memory on California's Round Valley Reservation, 1850–1941, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 119–21Google Scholar. For analysis of Blackfeet political actions, see Rosier, Paul, Rebirth of the Blackfeet Nation, 1912–1954 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2001)Google Scholar; Spence, Mark David, Dispossessing the Wilderness: Indian Removal and the Making of National Parks (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999)Google Scholar.
34 See “Want Their Money: Crow Creek Sioux Delegation in Washington on a Dunning Expedition,” Rocky Mountain News (Denver, CO), Dec. 31, 1896, 4; and “White Ghost Will Dine,” The Evening Times (Washington, DC), Dec. 25, 1896, 4.
35 ARCIA, 1897, 266.
36 55th Congress, 2nd Session, “Statement of Sioux Indians of Crow Creek Reservation on Failure of Government to Fulfill Contract,” Senate Report 546 (Ser. Set 3620), Washington, DC: GPO, 1898.
37 57th Congress, Sess. 1, CH 888, 1902, 755.
38 Hosmer, Brian, American Indians and the Marketplace: Persistence and Innovation Among the Menominees and Metlakatlans, 1870–1920 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1999), 52–57 Google Scholar.
39 Frank Avery to Agent S. M. Brosius, Indian Rights Association, Jan. 8, 1900, Herbert Welsh Papers in Indian Rights Association Papers [IRA Papers], Microfilm 182, Reel 133, Newberry Library (NL).
40 White Ghost to Secretary of the Interior, May 1, 1900, Welsh Papers, Microfilm 182, Reel 133, NL.
41 Hekalia Burt to Herbert Welsh, May 10, 1900; Burt to Bishop, May 16, 1900; “The Appointment of Indian Agents under the Present Administration: A report, presented to The Council of the National Civil Service Reform League,” May 1901, IRA Papers, Microfilm 182, Reel 15, NL [Hereafter IRA Papers, Reel 15].
42 Petition for Removal, July 12, 1900, submitted by Louie Loudner, IRA Papers, Reel 15.
43 Henry St. Pierre to Herbert Welsh, Feb 18, 1901, IRA Papers, Reel 15.
44 Episcopal Bishop William Hobart Hare to Samuel Brosius, June 30, 1900; Burt to Welsh, Jan. 29, 1901; Johnson to Welsh, Feb 11, 1901; IRA Papers, Reel 15.
45 Burt to Matthew Sniffen, Apr. 12, 1901, IRA Papers, Reel 15.
46 Grant, H. Roger, “Origins of a Progressive Reform: The Initiative and Referendum Movement in South Dakota,” South Dakota History 3:4 (Fall 1973): 404Google Scholar; ed. Thompson, Harry F., A New South Dakota History (Sioux Falls, SD: Center for Western Studies, 2005), 198Google Scholar.
47 Annual Report of the Department of the Interior, Washington, DC: GPO, 1900, 709.
48 Taliyopa, Williams, Clark, and White Ghost to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, June 6, 1900, IRA Papers, Reel 15. Still, in 1908, others questioned the identity and rights of LaCroix and her brothers, Mark and William Wells. See “Reports on petition of Homer Clark and others relative to the several cases presented by the Indians as to the rights of mixed-bloods on the reservation,” RG 75, CCF 1907–39, Crow Creek, Box 4, 1373–1908.
49 White Ghost to Herbert Welsh, May 22, 1902, IRA Papers, Reel 16.
50 Eastman's life provides the classic story of a traditional Dakota man using American education to ultimately graduate from Dartmouth College and medical school at Boston University. His first federal position was at Pine Ridge just prior to the Wounded Knee Massacre. While Eastman's life reveals the benefits of American education, he also became a noted critic of federal Indian policy. See Wilson, Raymond, Ohiyesa: Charles Eastman, Santee Sioux (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983)Google Scholar.
51 Wilson, Ohivesa, 108–15.
52 ARCIA, 1904, 324.
53 White Ghost and George Grey Cloud to Herbert Welsh, Apr. 29, 1902, IRA Papers, Reel 16.
54 Focused on the need for Indian self-sufficiency rather than treaty rights, Commissioner William A. Jones (1897–1904) directed agents to cut from ration roles “able-bodied Indians” who refused to work for the agent. See Prucha, Francis Paul, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians, abridged version (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986), 265Google Scholar.
55 ARCIA, 1902, 329–30.
56 Chief White Ghost to Hon. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Apr. 1903, #22891, Box 2273, LR 1903, RG 75, NA.
57 The “Dead Indian Act” enabled heirs to sell inherited land, and the Burke Act allowed the secretary of the Interior to declare certain Indians “competent” and thereby able to sell their land prior to the twenty-five year waiting period initially established by the Dawes (General Allotment) Act (1887).
58 Hoover, Herbert T., “The Sioux Agreement of 1889 and Its Aftermath” South Dakota History 19:1 (1989): 77–79 Google Scholar. Over time, John Q. Anderson's influence grew to include positions as postmaster, general store operator, member of both houses in the state legislature, and the largest land owner on the reservation. See Adolph Johnson, “A Narrative History of Crow Creek Reservation and Fort Thompson Community” pp. 13–14, manuscript in the South Dakota State Historical Society [SDSHS] Archives, Pierre, SD. See also McDonnell, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 90–91.
59 For discussion of Mille Lacs Ojibwe actions, see McClurken, James et al. , Fish in the Lakes, Wild Rice, and Game in Abundance: Testimony on Behalf of Mille Lacs Ojibwe Hunting and Fishing Rights, (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2000), 437Google Scholar; White, Bruce, We Are at Home: Pictures of Ojibwe People (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2007), 59Google Scholar; Hoxie, Frederick, “The U.S. Court of Claims: the Mille Lacs Ojibwes” in This Indian Country: American Indian Activists and the Place They Made (New York: Penguin, 2012)Google Scholar.
60 See Records of Educational Division, Reports of Industrial Surveys, 1922–29, Crow Creek, Boxes 8 and 9, RG 75, NA; and Hoover, “the Sioux Agreement,” 76–80.
61 Magababdu (Drifting Goose) and Sinte Yukan (With Tail) to the Hon. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Nov. 30, 1901, LR, 1901, Box 2014, #70270, RG 75, NA.
62 Chief Drifting Goose and With Tail to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Jan. 21, 1902, Box 2036, LR, RG 75, NA. While some sources refer to the Hunkpati or Hunkpatina as an alternative name for Lower Yanktonais, other sources suggest Hunkpatina as one of four divisions within the Lower Yanktonais, see DeMallie, Raymond, “Sioux Until 1850” in Handbook of North American Indians 13, Part 2 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian, 2001), 743–54Google Scholar.
63 One example of this may be found in the statements made by a Crow Creek delegation (including John Wooden Horn and Crow Man) in Washington, DC, Mar. 16, 1916, CCF, Crow Creek, Decimal 56, Box 6, NA [Hereafter 1916 Crow Creek Delegation].
64 Hosmer, American Indians and the Marketplace, 65.
65 Pius Boehm, Diary, Nov 11, 1902, St. Meinrad Archabbey, St. Meinrad, IN.
66 1916 Crow Creek Delegation, Mar. 16, 1916.
67 For additional context on founding of a Catholic boarding school at Crow Creek, see Galler, , “Making Common Cause: Yanktonais and Catholic Missionaries on the Northern Plains,” Ethnohistory 55:2 (2008): 439–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
68 ARCIA, 1905, 37; Twenty-Second Annual Report of the Executive Committee of the Indian Rights Association. Philadelphia: Office of the Indian Rights Association, 1905, 7. See also Prucha, Francis Paul, The Churches and the Indian Schools, 1888–1912 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979)Google Scholar.
69 Petition to Hon. W. A. Jones, Crow Creek Agency, June 1904, Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions (BCIM) Series 1, Roll 33, Crow Creek.
70 Petition of 106 Crow Creek Indians to the Indian Rights Association in The Twenty-Second Annual Report of the Executive Committee of the Indian Rights Association (IRA Annual Report), for the year ending Dec. 31, 1904 (Philadelphia: Office of the Indian Rights Association, 1905), 7.
71 See Fowler, Tribal Sovereignty and the Historical Imagination,71.
72 See “Minutes of the Plains Congress, Rapid City Indian School, Rapid City, SD, Mar. 2–5, 1934” in The Indian Reorganization Act: Congresses and Bills, ed. Deloria, Vine (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2002), 70–71 Google Scholar.
73 Acting Commissioner of Indian Affairs to United States Indian Agent at Crow Creek Agency, Mar. 28, 1908, Central Classified Files (CCF), 1907-39, Crow Creek, Decimal 56, Box 6. NA.
74 Executive Documents of the Senate of the US for the First Session of the Fifty-First Congress, 1889–90 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1890), 151.
75 For a broader discussion, see Viola, Herman, Diplomats in Buckskins: A History of Indian Delegations in Washington City (Bluffton, SC: Rivilo Books, 1995)Google Scholar; Hoxie, 249–60; Fowler, 17.
76 Superintendent to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Mar. 20, 1909, CCF 1907–39, Crow Creek 56, Box No. 6, RG 75, NA.
77 For Thomas Tuttle, see Copies of Letters Sent to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1909, South Dakota State Historical Society (SDSHS), Pierre, SD; Annual Reports for the Dept. of the Interior (Washington, DC: GPO, 1904), 595; For Bear Ghost, see Report of the Secretary of the Interior (Washington, DC: GPO, 1897), 557Google Scholar; For Big Eagle, see Year Book Young Men's Christian Associations (New York: International Committee, 1896), 132Google Scholar.
78 Superintendent to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Nov. 22, 1909, Letters Sent to the Commissioner 1869–1914, RG 75, NA, Kansas City, Microfilm Roll 73, SDSHS.
79 First Assistant Secretary to The Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Mar. 22, 1909, Box No 6, Crow Creek 56, CCF 1907–39, NA; Superintendent to Commissioner, Nov. 22, 1909, Copies of Letters Sent to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1869–1914, Microfilm Roll 73, SDSHS.
80 “Names of Indians employed as Clerks, Teachers, Assistants, and in other capacities, except irregular laborers,” Crow Creek Indian School, Jan 12, 1911, Box 89, Reports-Schools, Crow Creek, RG 75, NA-Kansas City; See also Hampton Normal & Agricultural Institute: American Indian Students (1878–1923), available at http://www.twofrog.com/hampton.html.
81 For more on this Winter Count, see Howard, James H., “Yanktonai Ethnohistory and the John K. Bear Winter Count,” Plains Anthropologist 21:73 (August 1976): 1–19 Google Scholar. According to Howard, it is the longest winter count and main source on the least-known division of the Sioux Confederation. It covers events from 1682–1883. John K Bear was a Lower Yanktonai who died at Crow Creek on May 2, 1916.
82 “Names of Indians employed as Clerks, Teachers, Assistants, and in other capacities, except irregular laborers” See also “Census of the Lower Yanktonai Sioux Indians of the Crow Creek Reservation, SD, June 30, 1912,” National Archives Microfilm Publications (Washington, DC: National Archives, 1965); List of Returned Students, Crow Creek Agency, Nov. 20, 1889, James McLaughlin Papers, Roll 22, Frame 759, SDSHS.
83 The Major Crimes Act (1885) made it a federal crime if an Indian person was accused of rape, murder, manslaughter, assault with intent to kill, arson, or larceny against another Indian on a reservation.
84 See Horace Johnson to Commissioner, Aug. 22, 1911, Circular #554, Subject Correspondence Files, 1903–39; Horace Johnson, “Names of Indians employed as Clerks, Teachers, Assistants, and in other capacities, except irregular laborers,” Crow Creek, SD, Jan. 12, 1911–12, Crow Creek, Box 89, Reports—Schools, RG 75, NA, Kansas City.
85 Two Heart was a member of Drifting Goose's band, and Shoots the Enemy was more directly related to White Ghost. See http://thefirstscout.blogspot.com/2013_08_01_archive.html.
86 Horace Johnson to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Aug. 22, 1911, RG 75, Records of the BIA, Crow Creek Agency, Subject Correspondence Files, 1903–39, Reports—Schools, Box 89, RG 75, NA, Kansas City.
87 Superintendent to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Oct. 24, 1910, CCF 1909–39, Crow Creek 56, Box 6, NA.
88 62d Congress, 2d Session, “Sale and Disposition of Surplus and Unallotted Lands in Crow Creek Reservation,” Senate Reports (Public) vol. 1, Report No. 246. (Washington, DC: GPO, 1912).
89 Barsh, Russel Lawrence, “An American Heart of Darkness: The 1913 Expedition for American Indian Citizenship,” Great Plains Quarterly 13 (Spring 1993): 91–115 Google Scholar.
90 Superintendent to Boehm, Oct 4, 1913, Folder 1, Box 93, RG 75, NA, Kansas City.
91 ARCIA, 1891, p 399. After attending Hampton for three years, Clark returned home, assisted White Ghost, served as a tribal judge, and was employed as a Protestant catechist.
92 Homer Clark to Superintendent William C. Kohlenberg, Dec. 15, 1913, CCF 1907–39, Crow Creek 56, Box 6, NA.
93 Clark to Kohlenberg, Dec. 15, 1913, CCF, 1907–39, Crow Creek 56, Box 6, RG 75, NA.
94 Kohlenberg to Clark, Dec. 16, 1913, CCF, 1907–39, Crow Creek 56, Box 6, RG 75, NA.
95 For an extended discussion of the persistence of dance see Troutman, John, “The Citizenship of Dance: Politics of Music among the Lakota, 1900–1924” in Beyond Red Power: American Indian Politics and Activism since 1900, eds. Cobb, Daniel M. and Fowler, Loretta (Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research, 2007)Google Scholar; and Indian Blues: American Indians and the Politics of Music, 1879–1934 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2009)Google Scholar.
96 Rise of Red Cross chapters at Crow Creek parallels national growth. According to “A Brief History of the American Red Cross,” available online at http://www.redcross.org/about-us/who-we-are/history. The number of local Red Cross chapters jumped from 107 in 1914 to 3,864 in 1918 and membership grew into the millions.
97 Charles Burke, Red Cross Chair, to Commissioner of Indian Affairs Cato Sells, Mar. 9, 1918, #27722-1918; Haygood to Sells, Apr. 16, 1918, CCF, 1907-1939, Crow Creek, Box 6, # 33402, RG 75, NA.
98 Lazarus, Edward, Black Hills White Justice: The Sioux Nation Versus the United States 1775 to the Present (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 134–37Google Scholar. See also Ostler, Jeffry, The Lakotas and the Black Hills: The Struggle for Sacred Ground (New York: Penguin Books, 2010)Google Scholar.
99 Iverson, Dine: A History of the Navajos, 104–8; Hoxie, Parading Through History, 231.
100 McClurken et al., Fish in the Lakes, 426–30.
101 Fowler, Tribal Sovereignty and the Historical Imagination, 71; Hoxie, 253–65.
102 See interview with Levi Big Eagle, Oct. 8, 1908 in “Reports on petition of Homer Clark and others,” CCF, Crow Creek, Box 149, File 54, 1373-1908, RG 75, NA.
103 See Lawson, Michael L., Dammed Indians Revisited: The Continuing History of the Pick-Sloan Plan and the Missouri River Sioux (Pierre: South Dakota Historical Society Press, 2009)Google Scholar.
104 Bob Mercer, “Mellette-area highway to be named for Chief Drifting Goose,” Aberdeen News, Mar. 24, 2011, Available online at: http://articles.aberdeennews.com/2011-03-24/news/29186911. The bridge runs between Mellette and Brentford, SD.