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⁴ The dependence of periodization on research-relevant theory can be off-putting to historians. Many historians are suspicious of theory, which they view as a way of fitting the variety of the past into a procrustean bed of dead concepts. The problem with this empiricist position is that whether historians acknowledge it or not, history is an intrinsically theoretical enterprise. Implicitly, even the empiricist historian undertakes an investigation that operates within a field of assumptions that determine what questions to pose, where to look for answers, and what would constitute satisfactory answers to them. On the other hand, some historians believe that there is no way to argue successfully for the superiority of one periodization scheme or master narrative over another; moreover, to do so would inevitably silence, stifle, or marginalize competing alternative narratives that also exist. The problem with this view is that rules constituting objectivity are necessary to the existence of any scholarly discipline or community of inquirers whether in the field of history or the sciences. For the argument against objectivity see Novick, Peter, That Noble Dream: The “Objectivity Question” and the American Historical Profession (Cambridge, UK, 1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar and White, Hayden, “The Value of Narrativity in the Representation of Reality,” in The Content of Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation (Baltimore, 1987)Google Scholar. For arguments in favor see Haskell, Thomas L., “Objectivity Is Not Neutrality: Rhetoric Versus Practice in Peter Novick's That Noble Dream,” History and Theory 29 (1990): 129–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Hollinger, David, “T. S. Kuhn's Theory of Science and Its Implications for History,” in In the American Province: Studies in the History and Historiography of Ideas (Bloomington, IN, 1985)Google Scholar.

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⁸ The literature on the cross-class rather than single-class character of transformative political movements is too vast to catalog here. For the Civil War, see Foner, Eric, Tree Soil, Tree Labor, Tree Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the CM War (New York, 1970)Google Scholar. For the Progressive Era, Filene, Peter, “An Obituary for the ‘Progressive Movement,’” American Quarterly 22 (Spring 1970): 20–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar, has led most historians away from single-class explanations and toward broadly political ones, such as Rodgers, Daniel T., Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA, 1998)Google Scholar. In Sklar's trenchant formulation: “[C]lass conflicts and changing class relations, corresponding with developing modes of production, generate conditions and pressures for changes of profound effect, but emergent cross-class alignments transact them,” (italics in original). See “Periodization and Historiography,” 19.

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