² Reformers also addressed the issues of sexual abuse of female convicts, poor housing and food, and education for convicts. See the Report of the Penitentiary Investigating Committee, 1909, Published by Order of the House of Representatives, August 1910. (Hereafter cited as Investigating Committee, 1910)

³ For examples in other southern states, see: Iichtenstein, Alex, Twice the Work of Free Labor: The Political Economy of Convict Tabor in the New South (New York, 1996)Google Scholar; Fierce, Milfred C., Slavery Revisited: Blacks and the Convict Lease System, 1865–1933 (New York, 1994)Google Scholar; Mancini, Matthew, One Dies, Get Another: Convict Leasing in the American South, 1866–1928 (Columbia, 1996)Google Scholar; Oshinsky, David M., Worse than Slavery: Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice (New York, 1996)Google Scholar; McKelvey, Blake, “A Half Century of Southern Penal Exploitation,” Social Forces 13 (October 13, 1934)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴ In 1850 there were only three inmates in the Huntsville prison and by 1860 there were only 182 state prisoners. The 489 figure in 1870 does not take into account the number of convicts held in county jails, of which there were surely many.

⁵ Biennial Report of the Texas Penitentiary System, 1870, p. 43Google Scholar; 1880, p. 23; 1900, p. 8; 1912, p. 32. (Hereafter cited as Report)

⁶ Elisha Marshall Pease, The Handbook of Texas Online, http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/PP/fpe8.html.

⁷ , Walker, Penology for Profit, 16.Google Scholar

⁸ Ibid.

⁹ James Webb Throckmorton, The Handbook of Texas Online, http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/TT/fth36.html.

¹⁰ , Walker, Penology for Profit, 22.Google Scholar

¹¹ , Walker, Penology for Profit, 24.Google Scholar

¹² Report, 1876 and Johnson, William, “A Short History of the Sugar Industry in Texas,” Texas Gulf Coast Historical Association Publications 5 (April 1961): 19.Google Scholar

¹³ , Mancini, One Dies, Get Another, 171.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Richard Coke, The Handbook of Texas Online, http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/CC/fco15.html.

¹⁵ , Walker, Penology for Profit, 37–38.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Report, 1878.

¹⁷ , Johnson, “A Short History,” 42.Google Scholar

¹⁸ , Mancini, One Dies, Get Another, 177–78.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Report and Proceedings of the State Investigating Committee, 1902. (Hereafter cited as Investigating Committee, 1902).

²⁰ Report, 1882.

²¹ Miller, Edmund T., A Financial History of Texas (Austin, 1916), 405.Google Scholar

²² Report, 1880.

²³ , Carleton, Politics and Punishment, 7.Google Scholar

²⁴ , McKelvey, “A Half Century of Southern Penal Exploitation,” 113.Google Scholar

²⁵ Gould, Lewis L., The Progressive Era (Syracuse, 1974), 2–3.Google Scholar

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²¹ Report, 1884.

²⁸ Wharton, Clarence R., Wharton's History of Fort Bend County (San Antonio, 1939), 228.Google Scholar

²⁹ Report 1910, p. 3.

³⁰ Report, 1910, p. 3.

³¹ Report, 1928, p. 8. The farms included: Eastham, Ferguson, Blue Ridge, Harlem, Imperial, Clemens, Darrington, Ramsey, Retrieve, Wynne, Goree (the women's prison, which did very little farming), and the recendy abandoned Shaw Farm.

³² San Antonio Express, December 5, 1908-January 11, 1909 and “Eminent Banker, Editor, Orator is Dead in Dallas,” Obituary for George Waverly Briggs, Texas Bankers Record, August 1957.

³³ Finty, Thomas Jr, “The Texas Prison Investigation,” The Survey, 23 (December 1909): 387.Google Scholar

³⁴ For example, see Wilkinson, J.L., The Trans-Cedar Lynching and the Texas Penitentiary; being a plain account of the lynching and the circumstances leading up to it, also a presentation of conditions as they exist in our state penitentiaries (Dallas, no date given).Google Scholar

³⁵ , Walker, Penology for Profit, 183–184.Google Scholar

³⁶ First Annual Report of the Society for the Friendless, Texas Division, 1906–1907, (Dallas, 1907), 6.Google Scholar

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³⁸ , Finty, “The Texas Prison Investigation,” p. 388.Google Scholar

³⁹ George Waverly Briggs, The Handbook of Texas Online, http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/BB/fbr48.html

⁴⁰ San Antonio Express, December 5, 1908-January 12, 1909, and Grantham, Dewey W., Southern Progressivism: The Reconciliation of Progress and Tradition, (Knoxville, 1983), 131.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Investigative Committee, 1910.Google Scholar

⁴² Investigative Committee, 1910, 566–567.

⁴³ Investigative Committee, 1910, 567.

⁴⁴ An Act Establishing a Prison System in the State of Texas (Austin, 1910), 1–7.Google Scholar(Hereafter cited as Prison Rfform Act, 1910).

⁴⁵ , Grantham, Southern Progressivism, 131.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ , Finty, “The Texas Prison Investigation,” 387.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Tom Finty, Jr., “Our Penal System and Its Purposes: A Discussion of Conditions and Compilation of Information Concerning the Texas Penitentiary and the Penal Institutions of Various Other States and Federal Government,” Galveston-Dalias News, 1909, Introduction and Tom Finty, The Handbook of Texas Online, http://www.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/FF/ffi14.html.

⁴⁸ , Finry, “Our Penal System,” 388.Google Scholar

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⁵⁵ , Gould, Progressives and Prohibitionists, 41.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ , Gould, Progressives and Prohibitionists, 87.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ , Gould, Progressives and Prohibitionists, 26Google Scholarand Lucko, Paul M., “Texas Prison Reform During the Oscar Branch Colquitt Administration: 1911–1914” unpublished paper, Barker Texas History Center, University of Texas at Austin, 1987, p. 5Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ San Antonio Express, December 18, 1908.

⁵⁹ San Antonio Express, December 19, 1908.

⁶⁰ San Antonio Express, December 17, 1908.

⁶¹ For an example of a lease agreement, see “Contract for Ball-Hutchings with the Penitentiary,” August 1895, folder 28-0039 at the Rosenberg Library, Galveston, Texas.

⁶² Finty, Tom Jr, “Troubles of the Texas State Prisons,” The Delinquent 3 (December 1913 and January 1914): 5–10.Google Scholar

⁶³ , Lucko, “Texas Prison Reform,” 6.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ , Lucko, “Texas Prison Reform,” 17.Google Scholar

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⁶⁷ , Finty, “The Troubles in the Texas State Prisons,” 5.Google Scholar

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⁷⁰ Investigating Committee, 1913, 36.

⁷¹ Investigating Committee, 1913, 37.

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⁷³ Investigating Committee, 1913, 37.

⁷⁴ Investigating Committee, 1913, 37.

⁷⁵ Investigating Committee, 1913, 57.

⁷⁶ Investigating Committee, 1913, 57.

⁷⁷ Investigating Committee, 1913, 262.

⁷⁸ The Houston Chronicle, September 8, 1913. (Hereafter cited as Chronicle)

⁷⁹ Chronicle, September 8, 1913

⁸⁰ Chronicle, September 8, 1913.

⁸¹ Chronicle, September 8, 1913, and Houston Daily Post September 8, 1913 (Hereafter cited as Post).

⁸² Chronicle, September 9, 1913

⁸³ Conduct Ledger of the Texas Penitentiary System. Any random sampling of the punishments in the Conduct Ledgers, for any of the years from 1875 through 1928 will show punishment for slow work or insubordination.

⁸⁴ , Finty, “Troubles of the Texas State Prisons,” 1–5Google Scholar, and Investigating Committee, 1913, 262Google Scholar.

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⁸⁷ Chronicle, September 8, 1913.

⁸⁸ Houston Post, September 3, 1913.

⁸⁹ Post, September 3, 1913.

⁹⁰ Chronicle, September 11, 1913.

⁹¹ Gould, , Progressives and Prohibitionist, 30–34.Google Scholar