No CrossRef data available.
We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 27 April 2018
Emory Johnson served in a series of executive-branch appointments pertaining to the Panama Canal. Like many other executive experts, he used his professional skills and reputation as political tools, promoting the canal and bringing its toll-making under his control. His activities diverged from what scholars have described as other experts’ practice of gaining influence by insulating themselves from the preceding era's partisan politics, however. An avowed Republican, he worked in collaboration with appointed officials and lobbied members of the public and Congress alike. Although he presented economic data as objective fact, his persuasive efforts drew heavily on an often-forgotten strand of the party's ideological tradition. It paradoxically promoted transportation projects simultaneously in associative terms, as using the market to secure the Union, and as benefiting the divergent interests of competing individual localities. Johnson's work reveals a professional in the federal government as a more multidimensional historical figure than that which appears in accounts describing experts as symbols of an undemocratic administrative state, illustrating a complex set of ties between the preceding period's political beliefs and practices and the rise of an administrative state.
1 North, S. N. D., “The Industrial Commission,” North American Review (June 1899): 710Google Scholar.
2 In this article I use the term Progressive State to refer to the federal government during the period 1897–1917. For an example of work presenting experts as critics of partisan politics, see Skowronek, Stephen, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877–1920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 55Google Scholar.
3 For examples of the latter argument, see Cohen, Nancy, The Reconstruction of American Liberalism, 1865–1914 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 254Google Scholar, 224; and Novak, William J., “The Legal Origins of the Modern American State” in Looking Back at Law's Century, eds. Sarat, Austin, Garth, Bryant, and Kagan, Robert A. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002), 273Google Scholar. Also see Leonard, Thomas C., “Progressive Era Origins of the Regulatory State and the Economist as Expert,” History of Political Economy (Suppl. 1 2015): 47, 49–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “American Progressivism and the Rise of the Economist as Expert” (July 2006): 1. Available at SSRN: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.926635; and “‘The Wise Minority in the Saddle:’ When American Economics became an Expert Discipline,” History of Economics Society Meetings, 2012. Available at www.princeton.edu/~tleonard/papers/wiseminority.pdf. A number of scholars have described two political cultures in this period, one comprised of grassroots organizations (often built by disfranchised women), and another consisting of the Progressive State's increasing reliance on technical experts and divorce from Democratic politics. See Sklar, Kathryn Kish, “Two Political Cultures in the Progressive Era: The National Consumers' League and the American Association for Labor Legislation” in U.S. History as Women's History: New Feminist Essays, eds. Kerber, Linda, Kessler-Harris, Alice, and Sklar, Kathryn Kish (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 36–62Google Scholar; Baker, Paula, “The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 1780–1920,” American Historical Review 89 (June 1984): 620–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Flanagan, Maureen “Gender and Urban Political Reform: The City Club and the Woman's City Club of Chicago in the Progressive Era,” American Historical Review 95 (Oct. 1990): 1032–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Evans, Sara, “Women's History and Political Theory: Toward a Feminist Approach to Public Life” and William Chafe, “Women's History and Political History,” both in Visible Women: New Essays on American Activism, eds. Hewitt, Nancy and Lebsock, Suzanne (Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 1993), 119–40 and 101–18Google Scholar, respectively.
4 Carpenter, Daniel, The Forging of Bureaucratic Autonomy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), 1, 33Google Scholar.
5 See Nackenoff, Carol and Novkov, Julie, “Statebuilding in the Progressive Era: A Continuing Dilemma in American Political Development” in Statebuilding from the Margins: Between Reconstruction and the New Deal, eds. Nackenoff, Carol and Novkov, Julie (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), 10Google Scholar.
6 Johnson's entry in The National Cyclopedia of American Biography (New York: J. T. White v. 36 [1961] 459)Google Scholar explicitly notes, “In politics he was a Republican.”
7 For a similar critique, see Brandwein, Pamela “Law and American Political Development,” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 7 (2011): 188–212CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Nackenoff and Novkov also acknowledge the significance of political ideologies and beliefs in their recent reappraisal of the literature of American state-building in this period. See their “Statebuilding in the Progressive Era.”
8 Ross, Dorothy, Origins of American Social Science (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 101–3CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and “Socialism and American Liberalism,” Perspectives in American History 11 (1977–78): 15–22, 69–70Google Scholar; Furner, Mary O., Advocacy and Objectivity: A Crisis in the Professionalization of American Social Science, 1865–1905 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1975), 48–55Google Scholar. Eldon Eisenach, The Lost Promise of Progressivism (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press), 49–50; and “Progressivism as a National Narrative in Biblical-Hegelian Time,” Social Philosophy and Policy 24:1 (2007): 59Google Scholar; on the Whig intellectual tradition in antebellum politics, see Howe, Daniel Walker, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979)Google Scholar.
9 Eisenach, Lost Promise of Progressivism, 68, 73.
10 Gerring, John, Party Ideologies in America, 1828–1996 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998) 15CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
11 Haberman, Robb, “Provincial Nationalism: Civic Rivalry in Postrevolutionary American Magazines,” Early American Studies 10 (Winter 2012): 165CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
12 John, Richard, “Ruling Passions: Political Economy in Nineteenth-Century America” in Ruling Passions: Political Economy in Nineteenth-Century America (University Park: Penn State University Press, 2006), 1–20Google Scholar.
13 Balogh, Brian, A Government Out of Sight: The Mystery of National Authority in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 20CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
14 Balogh A Government Out of Sight, 142–43.
15 Johnson, Emory, Life of a University Professor (Philadelphia: Ruttle, Shaw and Wetherill, 1943)Google Scholar, 2, 3.
16 Thwaites, Reuben G., The University of Wisconsin: Its History and Its Alumni (Madison: J. N. Purcell, 1900), 502Google Scholar; Johnson, Life of a University Professor, 13. According to the staff at the University of Wisconsin Archives, no copy of Johnson's thesis survives.
17 Johnson, Life of a University Professor, 13.
18 Johnson published a version of his paper as “River and Harbor Bills,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 2:2 (1891–1892): 50–80Google Scholar. See Life of a University Professor, 17.
19 Johnson published his doctoral dissertation as a supplement to the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science in 1893. “Inland Waterways: Their Relation to Transportation,” Supplement to the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (Sept. 1893).
20 Johnson, Emory, “River and Harbor Bills,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 6 (1891–2): 782Google Scholar.
21 Johnson, “River and Harbor Bills,” 809.
22 Johnson, “Inland Waterways, Their Relation to Transportation,” 119.
23 Johnson, “Inland Waterways,” passim.
24 Johnson, “Inland Waterways,” 133.
25 “Inland Waterways,” 15.
26 Siry, Steven, DeWitt Clinton and the American Political Economy: Sectionalism, Politics, and Republican Ideology, 1787–1828 (New York: Peter Lang, 1990), 8Google Scholar.
27 Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs, 138.
28 Dewees, Jacob, Railroads for Philadelphia! (Philadelphia: H. Orr, 1846), 23Google Scholar.
29 For a discussion of this tendency, see Goodrich, Carter, Government Promotion of American Canals and Railroads, 1800–1890 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1960), 294–95Google Scholar; McCormick, Richard L., “The Party Period and Public Policy: An Exploratory Hypothesis, Journal of American History 66 (Sept. 1979): 293CrossRefGoogle Scholar.”
30 Clinton, DeWitt, “Memorial to the Citizens of New York, in Favour of a Canal Navigation between the Great Western Lakes and the Tide-Waters of the Hudson” in Memoir of DeWitt Clinton, ed. Hosack, David (New York: J. Seymour, 1829), 410Google Scholar; A Serious Appeal to … the Legislature of the State of New York (n.p., 1816) cited from Shaw, Ronald E., Erie Water West: A History of the Erie Canal, 1792–1854 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1966), 66Google Scholar.
31 Proceedings of the Citizens of Philadelphia Relative to the Rail Road to Erie, and of the Convention at Williamsport, Lycoming County, PA (Philadelphia: J. Thompson, 1836), 18Google Scholar.
32 Godley, Jesse, Massey, Robert V., and Sieger, Peter, Address of the Committee Appointed at a Mass Meeting Held by the Friends of the Philadelphia, Easton, and Water Gap Rail-Road (Philadelphia: Brown's Steam Power Book and Job Printing Office, 1852), 6Google Scholar.
33 United States Gazette, Feb. 11, 1825; cf. Hartz, Louis, Economic Policy and Democratic Thought: Pennsylvania, 1776–1860 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1948), 12CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
34 Johnson, “Inland Waterways,” 5. He did not repeat his political predecessors’ exact, celestial reference, however.
35 Balogh, A Government Out of Sight, 142–43; for a more detailed account, see Sellers, William The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815–1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 152Google Scholar; for another episode, see Dunlavy, Colleen Politics and Industrialization: Early Railroads in the United States and Prussia (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 129Google Scholar.
36 Cleveland, Frederick A. and Powell, Fred W. Railroad Promotion and Capitalization in the United States (New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1909), ch. 7Google Scholar; Doyle, Don Harrison The Social Order of a Frontier Community: Jacksonville, Illinois 1825–1870 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978), 83Google Scholar; Larson, John Lauritz Bonds of Enterprise: John Murray Forbes and Western Development in America's Railway Age (expanded edition) (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2001), 49Google Scholar. See Johnson, Emory American Railway Transportation (New York: D. Appleton and Col, 1908), 320Google Scholar.
37 Calhoun, Charles W., “Political Economy in the Gilded Age: The Republican Party's Industrial Policy,” Journal of Policy History 8:3 (1996): 292–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gerring, John, “Party Ideology in America: The National Republican Chapter, 1828–1924,” Studies in American Political Development 11 (Spring 1997): 59CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Calhoun, Charles W., Minority Victory: Gilded Age Politics and the Front Porch Campaign of 1888 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2008), 18Google Scholar.
38 McCrea, Roswell “Biographical Sketch of Simon Nelson Patten” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (Suppl. May 1923): 353Google Scholar.
39 Patten, Simon, The Economic Basis of Protection (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1890), 137Google Scholar.
40 Patten, Economic Basis of Protection, 143.
41 Johnson named Phillips as the prime mover behind the Industrial Commission. See his Life of a University Professor, 32. On the origins of the Industrial Commission, see Wunderlin, Clarence, Visions of a New Industrial Order (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992), 28–29Google Scholar.
42 Preliminary Report of the Industrial Commission (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1900), 9Google Scholar.
43 Durand, E. Dana, “The United States Industrial Commission: Methods of Government Investigation,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 16 (1901–2): 568Google Scholar.
44 Johnson, Life of a University Professor, 32.
45 “Testimony of Prof. E.R. Johnson,” Report of the Industrial Commission on Transportation, Including Review of Evidence, Topical Digest of Evidence, and Testimony So Far as Taken May 1, 1900, Hearings before the Industrial Commission, Mar. 3, 1899 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1900), 62Google Scholar.
46 Durand, “The United States Industrial Commission,” 579.
47 Durand, “The United States Industrial Commission,” 569, 566.
48 Johnson, Life of a University Professor, 32.
49 Nine individuals made up the commission. Rear Admiral John G. Walker served as its president; Col. Peter C. Hains and Lieut. Col. Oswald H. Ernst represented the United States Army; George S. Morison, William H. Burr, Alfred Noble, and Lewis M. Haupt represented the nation's nonmilitary civil engineers. Samuel Pasco, an attorney and former United States Senator from Florida, and Johnson rounded out the body. See Johnson, Emory R., “The Isthmian Canal: The Work and Report of the Commission,” Review of Reviews (Jan. 1902): 36Google Scholar.
50 On universities as national institutions, see Eisenach The Lost Promise of Progressivism, 2, 18; Zunz, Olivier Why the American Century? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), xi–xiiGoogle Scholar; Wiebe, Robert Self-Rule: A Cultural History of American Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 141–43Google Scholar.
51 Sass, Steven, The Pragmatic Imagination: A History of the Wharton School, 1881–1981 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982), 119Google Scholar.
52 “Charles Custis Harrison,” Dictionary of American Biography (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1831) ,IV, 336–37Google Scholar; Sass, The Pragmatic Imagination, 85.
53 Johnson, Life of a University Professor, 33.
54 “Isthmian Commission's Plans: Several Members to Visit Paris and All to Go South Later,” New York Times, July 9, 1899, 8Google Scholar.
55 Johnson notes that he collected data for his report during “the latter half of 1899.” Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission, 1899–1902, Appendix NN, 515.
56 Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission, 1899–1901 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1901)Google Scholar, Senate Document 54, 57th Congress, 1st Session. The report's appendices, including Johnson's contribution, appeared in the 1902 publication of Senate document 54, Part 2. A third version of the report, containing some materials not present in the original document and appendices, such as Johnson's above observation, did not appear until 1904 as Senate document no. 222 of the 58th Congress, 2nd session.
57 Johnson, Emory R., “Reasons for the Panama Route,” Independent 54 (Feb. 1902): 314Google Scholar.
58 Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission on Proposal of New Panama Canal Co. (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1902)Google Scholar, Senate document 123, 57th Congress, 1st session; Johnson, Life of a University Professor, 57–58.
59 McCullough, David, The Path Between the Seas (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1977), 324Google Scholar.
60 Johnson, Life of a University Professor, 56.
61 Times (Chattanooga), Nov. 13, 1900; clipping from Emory Johnson personnel file, University Archives, University of Pennsylvania.
62 News (Savannah), May 15, 1900; clipping from Emory Johnson personnel file, University Archives, University of Pennsylvania.
63 Constitution (Atlanta), Oct. 1, 1900; clipping from Emory Johnson personnel file, University Archives, University of Pennsylvania.
64 Leader (Pittsburgh), Sept. 21, 1900; clipping from Emory Johnson personnel file, University Archives, University of Pennsylvania.
65 Chronicle-Telegraph (Pittsburgh), Sept. 21, 1900; Leader (Pittsburgh), Sept. 22, 1900; Herald (McKeesport, PA), Sept. 24, 1900; clippings from Emory Johnson personnel file, University Archives, University of Pennsylvania.
66 “The Isthmian Canal: The Work and Report of the Commission,” Review of Reviews 25 (Jan. 1902): 35–48; “The Isthmian Canal in Its Economic Aspects,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 19 (Jan. 1902): 1–23; “Reasons for the Panama Route” Independent 54 (Feb. 1902): 313–15; “The Isthmian Canal: Factors Affecting the Choice of Route” Quarterly Journal of Economics 16 (Aug. 1902): 514–36; “The Panama Canal” Independent 55 (Apr. 1903): 764–70; “Isthmian Canal Traffic” Quarterly Journal of Economics 17 (Aug. 1903): 529–75; “The Panama Canal: The Title and Concession” Political Science Quarterly 18 (June 1903): 197–215; “The Panama Canal Question” Independent 55 (Dec. 1903): 3098–3101.
67 Times (Philadelphia), Feb. 20, 1901.
68 Unknown Indianapolis newspaper, Feb. 8, 1902; Leader (Cleveland), Feb. 2, 1902; clippings from Emory Johnson personnel file, University Archives, University of Pennsylvania.
69 Preliminary Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission Senate document 5, 56th Congress, 2nd session (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1900)Google Scholar. The body submitted the report on Nov. 30, 1900.
70 Preliminary Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission, 36, 37.
71 Walker, Aldace F., “The Preliminary Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission,” The Forum (Apr. 1901): 145Google Scholar, 137, 142.
72 Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission, Part II (1902) Appendix NN – “Report on the Industrial and Commercial Value of the Canal,” 304.
73 Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission, Part II (1902), Appendix NN, 304, 519, 574, 537, 573.
74 Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission, Part II (1902), Appendix NN, 316.
75 Johnson, Emory R., “The Isthmian Canal: Factors Affecting the Choice of Route,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 16 (1901–2): 514Google Scholar; Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission (1904), Appendix NN – “Report on the Industrial and Commercial Value of the Canal,” 517, 525.
76 Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission (1902), Appendix NN, 310, 317.
77 Johnson, Emory R., “Principles of Governmental Regulation of Railways,” Political Science Quarterly (1900): 48CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “Inland Waterways,” 54.
78 Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission, Part II (1902), 382.
79 The Canal and the Railways,” Commercial (New York), Jan. 22, 1901; clipping from Emory Johnson personnel file, University Archives, University of Pennsylvania.
80 Griffin, Walt, George W. Goethals and the Panama Canal (Cincinnati, OH: University of Cincinnati dissertation, 1988), 483Google Scholar.
81 Griffin, Goethals and the Panama Canal, 490.
82 American businessmen writing to urge a quick resolution to the tolls issue included J. A. Farrell, president of United States Steel; R. N. Sewell of Howard Holder Shipping Agents; J. W. Ryan of the New York and South America Line, all to Goethals June 6, 1911. Materials found in Papers of the Isthmian Canal Commission, Folder 92-B.
83 Emory Johnson to George W. Goethals, June 7, 1911, Records of the Isthmian Canal Commission, U.S. National Archives RG 185.6, Folder 92-B.
84 Emory Johnson to George W. Goethals, June 12, 1911, George W. Goethals papers, Box 14, Library of Congress; Johnson, Life of a University Professor, 88.
85 Johnson, Life of a University Professor, 88.
86 Johnson, Life of a University Professor, 89.
87 “Statement of Dr. Emory R. Johnson, Special Commissioner on Panama Canal Traffic and Tolls,” Apr. 10, 1912, in Hearings before the Committee on Interoceanic Canals, United States Senate, Sixty-second Congress, Second Session on H.R. 21969 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1912), 16Google Scholar.
88 W. C. Adamson to H. L. Stimson, Jan. 6, 1912, Papers of the Isthmian Canal Commission, U.S. National Archives, Record Group 186.5, File 92-B-18; H.L. Stimson to Adamson, Jan. 11, 1912, Papers of the Isthmian Canal Commission, File 92-B-18. Adamson (D-GA) was chairman of the House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce at the time. See Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=A000051.
89 Johnson, Emory, “Statement before House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce,” Jan. 30, 1912 in The Panama Canal: Hearings before the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, House of Representatives, Sixty-second Congress, Second Session, Document No. 680 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1912), 731Google Scholar, 770.
90 “Statement of Dr. Emory R. Johnson,” Apr. 10, 1912, 39.
91 Emory Johnson to George Goethals, Apr. 13, 1912, Records of the Isthmian Canal Commission, File 92-B; Emory Johnson to George Goethals, July 19, 1912, Records of the Isthmian Canal Commission, File 92-B; Johnson, Emory, The Relation of the Panama Canal to the Traffic and Rates of the American Railroads, 62nd Congress, 2nd Session, Document no. 875 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1912)Google Scholar. Senator Frank Brandegee (R-CT) served as chairman of the Senate Committee on Interoceanic Canals and the Committee on Panama during the Sixty-second Congress (Mar. 4, 1911–Mar. 4, 1913). See “Brandegee, Frank Bosworth, 1864–1924” in Party Leaders in Congress, 1789–2002: Vital Statistics and Biographical Sketches (New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2002), 45Google Scholar.
92 Emory Johnson to George Goethals, June 17, 1912, Box 16, George W. Goethals papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC.
93 Henry L. Stimson to the president, Aug. 19, 1912, Stimson Papers, Microfilm Reel. 10, v. 1, no. 433.
94 Johnson, Emory R., Panama Canal Traffic and Tolls (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1912), 191–95Google Scholar.
95 Public Law 62–337, The Panama Canal Act, Section 5.
96 William Howard Taft, “Proclamation 1225–Panama Canal Toll Rates,” Nov. 13, 1912. Available online at www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=87365.
97 Johnson, The Relation of the Panama Canal to the Traffic and Rates of American Railroads, 41.
98 Henry L. Stimson, “Some Problems of the Panama Canal,” Address before the Commercial Club of Kansas City, Nov. 14, 1911(Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1911).
99 Stimson, “Some Problems of the Panama Canal,” 4, 6.
100 Stimson, “Some Problems of the Panama Canal,” 7, 11, 9.
101 Johnson, Life of a University Professor, 96.
102 Henry L. Stimson to Albert P. Schack, July 16, 1912, Stimson Papers, microfilm reel 10, v. 1, no. 307. Stimson used virtually the same language in his Annual Report for 1912. See Report of the Secretary of War to the President (Washington, DC, Dec. 2, 1912), 57. Available online at http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?q1=special%20industry;id=mdp.39015035990251;view=plaintext;seq=61;num=57;start=1;sz=10;page=search.
103 The Panama Canal: Hearings before the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, House of Representatives, Sixty-second Congress, Second Session, Apr. 4, 1912 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1912), 959Google Scholar; The Panama Canal: Hearings before the Committee on Interoceanic Canals, United States Senate, Sixty-second Congress, Second Session, Mar. 29, 1912 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1912), 708–9Google Scholar.
104 Henry Stimson to William Howard Taft, Dec. 18, 1912, Stimson Papers, microfilm reel 10, v.2, no. 103–5.
105 Emory Johnson, “The Value of the Panama Canal to This Country,” Page Lecture Series, Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University, 1913, 101–3.
106 Bulletin (Philadelphia), Apr. 28, 1913.
107 Emory Johnson, “Panama Canal Tolls” Address before the Traffic Club of Pittsburgh, Jan. 30, 1913, in Emory Johnson personnel file, University Archives, University of Pennsylvania; Ledger (Birmingham), Oct. 29,1913.
108 Cooper, John Milton Jr., Woodrow Wilson: A Biography (New York: Knopf, 2009), 249–50Google Scholar.
109 Rodgers, Daniel Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1998), 26Google Scholar; Skocpol, Theda Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 45Google Scholar.
110 National Cyclopedia of American Biography v. 36, 459; Emory R. Johnson Membership File, UL.IV.3, Courtesy of The Abraham Lincoln Foundation of The Union League of Philadelphia, The Union League of Philadelphia Archives, Philadelphia, PA.
111 National Cyclopedia of American Biography v. 36, 459.