1 Isan refers to the northeastern region of Thailand. A discussion of the ways in which Isan people perceive themselves and are perceived by others can be found in McCargo, Duncan and Krisadawan, Hongladarom, ‘Contesting Isan-ness: Discourses of politics and identity in northeast Thailand’, Asian Ethnicity, 5, 2 (2004): 219–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Most, but not all, Isan people are of Lao ethnicity — hence the term ‘Lao-Isan’.

2 Siriyuvasak, Ubonrat, ‘Commercialising the sound of the people: Pleng luktoong and the Thai pop music industry’, Popular Music, 9, 1 (1990): 61CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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4 Jirattikorn, Amporn, ‘Lukthung: Authenticity and modernity in Thai country music’, Asian Music, 37, 1 (2006): 24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 The reasons for the rise in status for luuk tung after 1997 are analysed in detail in ibid., pp. 32–8 and will not be dealt with in this article.

6 Palangwan, Waeng, Luuk tung Isan: Bpraawatsaat Isan dtamnaan pleeng luuk tung [‘Isan Luuk Tung: The history of Isan Luuk Tung’] (1st edition, Bangkok: Ruean Banyaa (RP Books), 2002)Google Scholar.

7 Grorptong, Siripon, Wiwatanagaan pleeng luuk tung nai sangkom Thai [‘The development of pleeng luuk tung in Thai society’] (Bangkok: Pantagit Publishing, 2004)Google Scholar.

8 Jirattikorn, ‘Authenticity’.

9 As stated in ‘Half a century of Thai country music’, Thai Cultural Newsletter [the official government cultural mouthpiece], Nov. 1989.

10 Ubonrat Siriyuvasak, ‘Cultural control and globalized culture’, Conference Paper (May 2000): 4.

11 ‘Saagon’ means universal or modern. ‘Pleeng’ means song.

12 Barmé, Scot, Luang Wichit Wathakan and the creation of a Thai identity (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1993), pp. 110–12Google Scholar.

13 Moro, Pamela, ‘Constructions of nation and the classicisation of music: Comparative perspectives from Southeast and South Asia’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 35, 2 (2004): 199–200CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 Ubonrat Siriyuvasak, ‘Commercialising’, p. 63.

15 Refer to Siriyuvasak, ‘Cultural control’, and Barmé, Luang Wichit, for further discussion.

16 Martin, Peter J., Sounds and society: Themes in the sociology of music (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995), p. 128Google Scholar.

17 Moro, ‘Constructions of nation’, p. 199.

18 Reynolds, Craig J., National identity and its defenders: Thailand today (Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2002), p. 1Google Scholar.

19 Moro, ‘Constructions of nation’, p. 203.

20 Ibid., 198.

21 Ronald L. Myers, ‘The Isan saga: The inhabitants of rural north east Thailand and their struggle for identity, equality and acceptance (1964–2004)’ (San Diego, Department of Asia Pacific Studies, San Diego State University, 2005), p. 30.

22 Palangwan, Luuk tung Isan, p. 53.

23 Jirattikorn, ‘Authenticity’, p. 43.

24 Reynolds, Craig J. and Lysa, Hong, ‘Marxism in Thai historical studies’, Journal of Asian Studies, 43, 1 (1983): 96CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25 Naawikmuun, Anek, Pleeng nork satawat (Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1978 and 1986)Google Scholar.

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29 Putharaporn, Kobkul, ‘Country folk songs and Thai society’, in Traditional and changing Thai world view (Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Research Institute and Southeast Asian Studies Programme, 1985)Google Scholar.

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31 Siriyuvasak, Ubonrat, ‘Thai pop music and cultural negotiation in everyday politics’, in Trajectories: Inter-Asia cultural studies, ed. Chen, Kuan-Hsing (London and New York: Routledge, 1998), p. 206Google Scholar.

32 ‘Half a century of Thai country music’, Thai Cultural Newsletter (June 1991), p. 4.

33 Found in Lockard, Dance of life, p. 179. Lockard's parentheses.

34 Lent, John A., ‘Review of Dance of life: Popular music and politics in Southeast Asia by Craig A. Lockard’, Pacific Affairs, 73, 1 (2000): 140CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

35 Found in Lockard, Dance of life, p. 179.

36 Lao-Isan folk music. Without capitalisation, mor lam refers to the genre; with capitalisation, it is the title for a practitioner.

37 Miller, Terry E., Traditional music of the Lao: Kaen playing and mawlum singing in northeast Thailand, vol. 13, Contributions in Intercultural and Comparative Studies (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985), p. 54Google Scholar.

38 Ibid., p. 235.

39 Ibid., p. 54.

40 Palangwan, Luuk tung Isan, pp. 255, 323.

41 Grorptong, Wiwatanagaan pleeng luuk tung, pp. 439–40.

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44 Hayes, Michael, ‘Capitalism and cultural relativity: The Thai pop industry, capitalism and western cultural values’, in Refashioning pop music in Asia: Cosmopolitan flows, political tempos and aesthetic industries, ed. Shoesmith, B., Chun, A. and Rossiter, N. (Richmond: Curzon, 2004), p. 23Google Scholar.

45 ‘Songs for life’. Myers-Moro, Pamela, ‘Songs for life: Leftist Thai popular music in the 1970s’, Journal of Popular Culture, 20, 3 (1986): 93–114CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

46 Mitchell, Tony, ‘Dick Lee's transit lounge: Orientalism and pan-Asian pop’, Perfect Beat, 5, 3 (2001): 19Google Scholar.

47 Lockard, Dance of life, p. 190.

48 Nawikmuun, Pleeng nork satawat, p. 63.

49 Palangwan, Luuk tung Isan, pp. 492–505.

50 Siriyuvasak, ‘Commercialising’.

51 Marre, Jeremy and Charlton, Hannah, Beats of the heart: Popular music of the world (New York: Pluto Press, 1985)Google Scholar.

52 Putharapon, ‘Country folk songs’.

53 Myers-Moro, Pamela, ‘Thai music and attitudes towards the past’, Journal of American Folklore, 102, 404 (1989): 193Google Scholar.

54 Clewley, John, ‘The many sounds of Siam’, in The rough guide to world music: Volume 2, ed. Broughton, S. (Rough Guides Ltd, 1994), p. 440Google Scholar.

55 Siriyuvasak observes that ‘influences from Indian and Chinese cultures are minimal in contemporary pop music, though much greater on classical music’, ‘Commercialising’, p. 62.

56 Hesse-Swain, Catherine, ‘Programming beauty and the absence of Na Lao: Popular Thai TV and identity formation among youth in northeast Thailand’, GeoJournal, 66, 3 (2006): 260CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

57 Palangwan, Luuk tung Isan, p. ii.

58 Phongpaichit, Pasuk and Baker, Christopher John, Thailand's crisis (Singapore and Copenhagen: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies and Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, 2000), pp. 193–4Google Scholar.

59 Palangwan, Luuk tung Isan, p. iv.

60 Popular Thai folk dance in which men and women dance in a circle — developed during Phibunsongkraam and Wichit's period of influence.

61 Palangwan, Luuk tung Isan, pp. 210, 214.

62 Author's interview, Jan. 2007.

63 Clewley, ‘Many sounds’, p. 446.

64 Palangwan, Luuk tung Isan, pp. 200–1.

65 Jenpop Jopgrabuanwan has recently followed Grorptong with a guide to luuk tung singers, Pleeng Luuk Tung, published in late 2007.

66 Grorptong, Wiwatanagaan, pp. 193–4.

67 Ibid., pp. 144–5.

68 Ibid., pp. 439–43. Such lists do not take into account urban migration, and a more detailed analysis of the histories of individual performers is needed to determine whether Iasiiwong is correct.

69 Ibid., pp. 233, 239, 444–5.

70 Jirattikorn, ‘Authenticity’, p. 35.

71 Ibid., pp. 25–6.

72 Attali, Jacques, Noise: The political economy of music (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985), p. 6Google Scholar.

73 The concept of Pan-Thai influence over Southeast Asia, which culminated in the attempts to ‘reclaim’ parts of Laos and Cambodia during World War II, has persisted throughout the 20^th century and still exerts influence on contemporary Thai thinking through the nationalist historiography found in school textbooks which ‘promotes a linear view of Central Thai development’ (Reynolds, National identity, p. 315). For example, a diplomatic dispute in February 2003 between Thailand and Cambodia was sparked by comments from a character played by Thai actress Suvanant Kongying claiming Angkor Wat belonged to Thailand (‘Thailand withdraws envoy to Cambodia’, BBC News World Edition, 29 Jan. 2003). The recent dispute over the Preah Vihear temple can also be viewed in this light since the People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD) support the nationalist historiography.

74 Jirattikorn, ‘Authenticity’, p. 47.

75 Only Myers-Moro suggests that luuk tung originated in Isan, ‘Songs for life’, p. 98.

76 Farang means Caucasian. Refer to Pattana Kitiarsa, ‘Farang as Siamese occidentalism’, Asia Research Institute: Working Paper Series (Sept. 2005), http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/article_view.asp?id=359 (last accessed on 11 Aug. 2008).

77 Nawikmuun, Pleeng nork satawat, pp. 66–7.

78 Palangwan, Luuk tung Isan, pp. 166, 177.

79 mor lam is used here to refer to the overall genre.

80 Jirattikorn, ‘Authenticity’, p. 43.

81 Miller, ‘From country hick’, pp. 103, 106.

82 Author's interview, Jan. 2007.

83 Thongchai McIntyre, known as ‘Bird’, was one of Grammy's first promoted acts. He has subsequently become Thailand's most famous contemporary musician (Hayes, ‘Refashioning pop music’, p. 21).

84 An item used to welcome guests.

85 Jirattikorn, ‘Authenticity’, p. 44.

86 Tai refers to Thai, Lao, Shan, Black and White Tai people groups. Reynolds, National identity, p. 314.

87 Reynolds, National identity, pp. 315–16.

88 Luuk tung songwriter Cholati Taangtorng in Siriyuvasak, ‘Commercialising’, p. 54. As an interesting point of comparison, Grammy made $4 million (presumably USD) from selling 1.6 million cassettes by the artist Mos in 1994. Mos received $280,000 in royalty. This means that Grammy has dramatically improved the pay conditions for at least some performers. Andrew Tanzer, ‘Control freaks’, Forbes, 10 Apr. 1995, pp. 90–2.

89 Literally meaning ‘gold record’. Unlike gold or platinum records in the western pop industry, it does not signify sales of a certain amount.

90 Committee for the Office of National Culture, Gueng satawat pleeng luuk tung Thai (Bangkok: Amrin Printing Group, 1989), p. 126Google Scholar.

91 This information is taken from this author's interview and Tam niap silabin chabap bprawat nakrorng luuk tung gueng satawat 1 and 2 (Bangkok: Office of National Culture, 1996), a publication listing the details of the performers who were honoured in the ‘Half century of Thai country music’ concerts.

92 The English song names are not direct translations of the Thai names but the names of the English translations.

93 Siriyuvasak, ‘Commercialising’, p. 66.

94 Ibid., p. 67.

95 Kaek – Indian, Mon – minority in Myanmar, Baangkunprom is a place in Bangkok. Hence, ‘Mon Indian of Baangkunprom’.

96 The translated song title is ‘Sansanii (girl's name) escapes’.

97 ‘Love Thailand’. Refer to Barmé, Luang Wichit, p. 124.

98 Siriyuvasak, ‘Commercialising’, p. 71.

99 Ibid., p. 71.

100 Myers-Moro, ‘Songs for life’, p. 107.

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103 Vicki-Ann Ware, ‘Stylistic and cultural transformations in Bangkok fusion music from 1850 to the present day, leading to the development of dontri Thai prayak’ (Monash University, 2006), pp. 70–3, 89–91.

104 List, George, ‘Speech melody and song melody in central Thailand’, Ethnomusicology, 5, 1 (1961): 31CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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106 Tam niap silabin, p. 37.

107 ‘Tears of Mrs Saudi’ tells the story of an Isan woman whose husband has gone to work in Saudi Arabia. Mentioned in Clewley, ‘Many sounds’, p. 446.

108 ‘Ask friend to write a letter’. A girl asks her girlfriend to write a letter for her to a guy and the guy ends up going out with the girlfriend!