The authors wish to acknowledge the extensive bibliographic assistance of Amity Doolittle, Emily Harwell, James Spencer, and Hugh Raffles, without which this paper could not have been completed. Their comments, as well as those of Peter Znoj, David Thomas, and Thomas Enters on earlier drafts are also much appreciated. We of course remain responsible for glaring omissions and foolish statements. Research on which this paper was based was facilitated by grant #SBR-9310921 from the National Science Foundation's Law and Social Science programme.

¹ Wolters, O.W., Early Indonesian Commerce (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1967)Google Scholar; Hall, Kenneth, Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985)Google Scholar; Potter, Lesley, “Indigenes and Colonizers: Dutch Forest Policy in South and East Borneo (Kalimantan) 1900 to 1950”, in Changing Tropical Forests: Historical Perspectives on Today's Challenges in Asia, Australasia and Oceania, ed. Dargavel, John, Dixon, Kay and Semple, Noel (Canberra: Centre for Regional and Environmental Studies, 1988), pp. 127–54Google Scholar; Peluso, Nancy Lee, “The Political Ecology of Extraction and Extractive Reserves in East Kalimantan, Indonesia”, Development and Change 23, 4 (1992): 49–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

² World Resources Report 1994 (Washington D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1994).Google Scholar

³ Bangkok: The Nation, 1 July 1994.

⁴ One notable exception is the softwood timber ”ramin” (Gonystylus bancanus) which experienced a boom in Sarawak and West Kalimantan during the first two decades after the war.

⁵ Repetto, Robert and Gillis, Malcolm, Public Policies and the Misuse of Forest Resources (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶ Potter, Lesley, “Land Degradation, Innovation, and Social Welfare in the Riam Kiwa Valley, South Kalimantan Indonesia” in Land Degradation and Society, ed. Blaikie, Piers and Brookfield, Harold (London: Methuan, 1987), pp. 164–96;Google Scholar Nancy Lee Peluso, “The Ironwood Problem: (Mis-)management and Development of an Extractive Rainforest Product”, Conservation Biology 6, 1 (June): 210–19; Padoch, Christine, “Woodlands of Tae: Traditional Forest Management in Kalimantan”, in Forest Resources and Wood-based Biomass Energy as Rural Development Assets (New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., 1994)Google Scholar; cf., Hecht, S.B., Anderson, A.B. and May, P., “The Subsidy from Nature: Shifting Cultivation, Successional Palm Forests, and Rural Development”, Human Organization 47,1 (1988): 25–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁷ Cribb, R., “The Politics of Environmental Protection in Indonesia” (Working Paper 48, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1988)Google Scholar; Poffenberger, Mark (ed.), Keepers of the Forest: Land Management Alternatives in Southeast Asia (West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press, 1990)Google Scholar; Tadem, Eduardo, “Land-based Resources in ASEAN Countries”, in Conflict over Natural Resources in the Asia-Pacific Region, ed. Ghee, Lim Teck and Valencia, Mark (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990).Google Scholar

⁸ Peluso, Nancy Lee, Rich Forests, Poor People: Resource Control and Resistance in Java (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁹ In addition, some colonial or former colonial foresters remained in Southeast Asia and continued to influence forest policy in the initial postwar period.

¹⁰ Some examples include Nin, Leong Hing, “Highlights of Forestry During the First Decade of Independence in West Malaysia”, The Malayan Forester 31 (1968): 3–14Google Scholar; Asiddao, Florencio, “Natural versus Artificial Reproduction of Dipterocarp Species”, Philippine Journal of Forestry 7 (1950): 63–77Google Scholar; Utleg, Juan, “Contribution of Forest Industrialization to the Economic Development and Improvement of the Country”, Philippine Journal of Forestry 21 (1965): 1–11Google Scholar; Hoe, Tan Chein, “One Hundred Years of Forestry in Burma”, Burmese Forester 6,1 (1956): 45–53Google Scholar; Mahaphol, S., Teak in Thailand (Bangkok: Royal Forest Department, 1956)Google Scholar; Steup, F.K.M., “Enkele Desiderata Betreffende Bosonderzoek en Bospolitiek in Indonesie”, Tectona 43 (1955): 265–77Google Scholar; Ottow, A., “De Opzet van Boschexploitatie-Bedrijven in de Buitengewesten, Meer Speciaal in Oost-Borneo”, Tectona 42 (1952): 175–281.Google Scholar

¹¹ Rostow, W.W., The Stages of Economic Growth; A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed., 1971).Google Scholar

¹² See, e.g., Furnival, John, Netherlands India: A Study of Plural Economy (Cambridge: The University Press and the Macmillan Company, 1944)Google Scholar, and Colonial Policy and Practice, A Comparative Study of Burma and Netherlands India (New York: New York University Press, 1956).Google Scholar

¹³ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Report of the FAO Mission for Siam (Washington, D.C: FAO, 1947)Google Scholar. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, A Public Development Program for Thailand (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1959), pp. 82–83.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Ingram, James C., Economic Change in Thailand 1850–1970 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1971)Google Scholar; Silcock, T.H., The Economic Development of Thai Agriculture (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1970).Google Scholar

¹⁵ For example, Ramitanondh, Shalardchai, “Forests and Deforestation”, pp. 23–51 in Culture and Environment in Thailand, ed. The Siam Society (Bangkok: The Siam Society, 1989).Google Scholar

¹⁶ We are indebted to David Thomas for reminding us of this important point.

¹⁷ Pelzer, Karl, Land Settlement in Southeast Asia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1948).Google Scholar

¹⁸ See, for example, Rigg, Jonathon, Southeast Asia: A Region in Transition (London: Unwin Hyman, 1991)Google Scholar; Uhlig, Harold (ed.), Spontaneous and Planned Settlement in Southeast Asia (Hamburg: Institute of Asian Affairs, 1984).Google Scholar

¹⁹ Special Issue on the Indonesian Transmigration Program, The Ecologist, 16, 2/3 (1986).Google Scholar

²⁰ See, e.g., Pelzer, Land Settlement, p. 189.

²¹ Conklin, Harold, Hanunoo Agriculture (Rome: FAO, 1957)Google Scholar, and “An Ethnoecological Approach to Shifting Agriculture”, Merrill-Bobb Reprint service, 1957, first published in Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences 17 (1954): 133–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²² Spencer, J.S., Shifting Cultivation in Southeastern Asia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967).Google Scholar

²³ For example, Bernatzik, H.A., Akha and Miao: Problems of Applied Ethnography in Farther India (New Haven: HRAF, 1970, translated by Nagler, Alois)Google Scholar; Sutlive, Vinson H., The Iban of Sarawak (Arlington Heights, II: AHM Publishing Corporation, 1978)Google Scholar; Leach, E.R., Political Systems of Highland Burma (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1954).Google Scholar

²⁴ Conklin, “Ethnoecological Approach”, pp. 140–41.

²⁵ Freeman, Derek, Report on the Iban (Kuching: HMS Printing Service, 1957).Google Scholar

²⁶ See, e.g., Geertz, Clifford, Agricultural Involution (Berkeley: niversity of California Press, 1963)Google Scholar; Gourou, Pierre, The Tropical World: Its Social and Economic Conditions and its Future Status (London: Green and Co., 1953)Google Scholar; and Ormeling, F.J., The Timor Problem: A Geographical Interpretation of an Underdeveloped Island (Groningen and Djakarta: Wolters, E.J., 1956).Google Scholar

²⁷ For example, Spencer, , Shifting Cultivation, Peter Kunstadter in Farmers in the Forest, ed. Kunstadter, , Chapman, E.C. and Sabhasri, S. (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1978)Google Scholar, and later work by Padoch, Christine [e.g., Alternatives to Migration among the Iban of Sarawak (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 1983)]Google Scholar; Grandstaff, Terry B., Shifting Cultivation in Northern Thailand (Tokyo: United Nations University, 1978)Google Scholar; and Dove, Michael R. [see especially, “Theories of Swidden Agriculture, and the Political Economy of Ignorance”, Agroforestry Systems 1 (1983): 85–99].CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁸ See Conklin, “Ethnoecological Approach”, pp. 140–41.

²⁹ For example, Hart, Gillian, Power, Labor, and Livelihood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976)Google Scholar; Husken, Frans, “Landlords, Sharecroppers, and Agricultural Labourers: Changing Labour Relations in Rural Java”, Journal of Contemporary Asia 9, 2 (1979): 140–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moerman, Michael, Agricultural Change and Peasant Choice in a Thai Village (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968)Google Scholar. Note that many of these arguments are reexamined and built upon in a 1986 volume edited by Hart, Gillian, White, Benjamin and Turton, Andrew, Agrarian Transformations: Local Processes and the State in Southeast Asia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).Google Scholar

³⁰ Feeny, David, The Political Economy of Agricultural Productivity: Thai Agricultural Development 1880–1975 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1982)Google Scholar. Also, Ghee, Lim Teck, Peasants and their Agricultural Economy in Colonial Malaya, 1874–1941 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1977).Google Scholar

³¹ See, e.g., Hudson, A.B., Padju Epat, the Ma'anyan of Indonesian Borneo (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1972)Google Scholar; Miles, Douglas, Cutlass and Crescent Moon (Sydney: Center for Asian Studies, University of Sydney, 1976)Google Scholar; and Rambo, Terry, “Human Ecology of the Orang Asli: A Review of Research on the Environmental Relations of the Aborigines of Peninsular Malaysia”, Federations Museums Journal 24 (1979): 39–71.Google Scholar

³² Penny, David and Ginting, Meneth, “House Gardens-the Last Resort? Further Economic Arithmetic from Sriharjo”, in Indonesia: Australian Perspectives, ed. Fox, J., Garnaut, R., McCawley, P. and Mackie, J. (Canberra: Research School of Pacific Studies, The Australian National University, 1980), pp. 487–99Google Scholar. See also Stoler, Ann, “Garden Use and Household Economy in Rural Java”, Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies 14, 2 (1975): 85–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³³ Fox, James, Harvest of the Palm: Ecological Change in Eastern Indonesia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978).Google Scholar

³⁴ See, for example, Kerkvliet, Ben, The Huk Rebellion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977)Google Scholar; and Adas, Michael, Prophets of Rebellion: Millenarian Protest Movements Against the European Colonial Order (Durham: North Carolina University Press, 1979).Google Scholar

³⁵ See especially the two volume set edited by Kunstadter, Peter, Southeast Asian Tribes, Minorities, and Nations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967). This trend resembled what government anthropologists were doing in the 1950s, as mentioned above.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁶ See Geddes, William Robert, Migrants of the Mountains (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), pp. vi–vii.Google Scholar

³⁷ See comments by William Robert Geddes, “The Tribal Research Center, Thailand”, in Southeast Asian Tribes, ed. Kunstadter, pp. 553–81.

³⁸ They reject Conklin's distinction between integral and partial as inappropriate for understanding the different types of resource use in Northern Thailand.

³⁹ McCoy, Alfred, The Politics of Heroin in Southeast Asia (New York: Harper and Row, 1972).Google Scholar

⁴⁰ A few of the many examples include Geddes, Migrants of the Mountains, and Cooper, Robert, Resource Scarcity and the Hmong Response: Patterns of Settlement and Economy in Transition (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1984). Perhaps because of the interest in replacing opium with other cash crops, these studies seldom analyze swidden agriculture in relation to forest management.Google Scholar

⁴¹ For example, Hickey, Gerald Canon, Free in the Forest: Ethnohistory of the Vietnamese Central Highlands, 1954–1976 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982)Google Scholar; see also his Shattered World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993).Google Scholar

⁴² Hickey, Shattered World, pp. 260ff.

⁴³ Ibid., p. 264.

⁴⁴ For example, governments and resource economists have long planned carefully for sustainable timber production, even if these plans were locally undermined. See Bryant, Raymond L., “Shifting the Cultivator: The Politics of Teak Regeneration in Colonial Burma”, Modern Asian Studies 28, 2 (1994): 225–50; Peluso, Rich Forests, Poor People.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁵ Cf. Hamilton, Larry, “Forward”, in Bruijnzeel, L.A., Hydrology of Moist Tropical Forests and Effects of Conversion: A State of Knowledge Review (Paris: UNESCO International Hydrological Programme, 1990)Google Scholar; John McKinnon, “Structural Assimilation and Consensus: Clearing Grounds on which to Rearrange our Thoughts”, in Hill Tribes Today, pp. 303–359. Both question the “established knowledge” that forest conversion or swidden agriculture necessarily cause flooding, land degradation, erosion, and sedimentation, and note that forest policies have often been based on this “knowledge”. The physical impacts of land use change are still being hotly debated; see, Alford, D., “Streamflow and Sediment Transport from Mountain Watersheds of the Chao Phraya Basin in Northern Thailand. A Reconnaissance Study”, Mountain Research and Development 12 (Aug. 1992): 257–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁶ For example, Christine Padoch, Michael Dove, Terry Rambo and Jeff Romm.

⁴⁷ For an explanation of the study's intentions and some of its results, see Vayda, A.P., Colfer, Carol and Brotokusumo, M., “Interactions between People and Forests in East Kalimantan”, The Impact of Science on Society 30, 3 (1980): 179–90Google Scholar; and Kartawinata, Kuswata and Vayda, A.P., “Forest Conversion in East Kalimantan, Indonesia: The Activities and Impacts of Timber Companies, Shifting Cultivators, and Migrant Pepper and Others” in Ecology in Practice: I. Ecosystem Management, ed. Castri, F. di, Baker, F.W.G. and Hadley, M. (Paris: UNESCO, 1984), pp. 98–126.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Tropical Rainforests of the Far East (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975).Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Ecological Studies in the Mixed Dipterocarp Forests of Brunei State (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964).Google Scholar

⁵⁰ For example, Burkhill, I.H., The Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula (Kuala Lumpur: Published on behalf of the Governments of Malaysia and Singapore by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, 1935)Google Scholar; Foxworthy, F.W., Timbers of British North Borneo and Minor Forest Products and Jungle Produce (Sandakan: Government of British North Borneo, Department of Forestry, 1916).Google Scholar

⁵¹ N. Nicholls, “ENSO, Drought and Flooding Rain in Southeast Asia”, in Southeast Asia's Environmental Future, ed. Brookfield & Byron, pp. 154–75.

⁵² For example, Potter combines Dutch and British historical sources from Borneo's severe drought of 1877–78 and others occurring up to 1941, with recollections of contemporary informants, newspaper reports, and field observations to analyze ENSO's impact on forests and human populations. Potter, Lesley, “Drought and Fire: Hazards Leading Toward Endangerment”, in In Place of the Forest: Environmental and Socioeconomic Transformation in Borneo and the Eastern Malay Peninsula, ed. Brookfield, Harold, Potter, Lesley and Bryon, Yvonne (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 1995)Google Scholar. See also, Salavsky, Nicholas, “Drought in the Rain Forest”, Climate Change 21, 4 (1994): 373–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵³ See, for example, Ghee, Lim leek and Gomes, Alberto (eds.), Tribal Peoples and Development in Southeast Asia (Special Issue of Manusia and Masyarakat, Department of Anthropology and Sociology, University of Malaya, 1990).Google Scholar

⁵⁴ See, for example, the exchange between Wanat Bhruksasri (“Government Policy”) on one hand, and John McKinnon (“Structural Assimilation”) and other contributors to the volume Hill Tribes Today.

⁵⁵ See, e.g., Bass, Stephen and Morrison, Elaine, Shifting Cultivation in Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam: Regional Overview and Policy Recommendations (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, 1994)Google Scholar; Sam, Do Dinh, Shifting Cultivation in Vietnam: Its Social, Economic, and Environmental Values Relative to Alternative Land Use (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, 1994); and others in the same series.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Raymond C. Bryant, “Shifting the Cultivator”. Note that although Hickey's work was published in the 1980s and 1990s, his fieldwork was done several decades earlier, as discussed above.

⁵⁷ Contributors to Hart, et al., Agrarian Transformations, apply a political economy approach to sitespecific agrarian relations across much of Southeast Asia.

⁵⁸ For some definitions and theoretical treatment of political ecology analyses by Asianists, see Blaikie, Piers and Brookfield, Harold, Land Degradation and Society (London: Methuan, 1987)Google Scholar, especially chapters 1 and 2; see also, Bryant, Raymond, “Political Ecology: An Emerging Research Agenda in Third World Studies”, Political Geography 11, 1 (1992): 12–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵⁹ Robison, Richard, Indonesia: The Rise of Capital (Asian Studies Association of Australia, Southeast Asia Publications Series, no. 13; Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1986).Google Scholar

⁶⁰ See, e.g., Nancy Lee Peluso, Rich Forests, Poor People; Potter, Lesley, “Indigenes and Colonisers: Dutch Forest Policy in South and East Borneo”, in Changing Tropical Forests, ed. Dargavel, John, et al. (Canberra: ANU, 1988), pp. 127–53Google Scholar, and “Environmental and Social Aspects of Timber Exploitation in Kalimantan, 1967–1989”, in Indonesia: Resources, Ecology and Environment, ed. Hardjono, Joan (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 177–211Google Scholar; and Hirsch, Philip, Development Dilemmas in Rural Thailand (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1991).Google Scholar

⁶¹ Peluso, Rich Forests, Poor People; Vandergeest, Peter and Peluso, Nancy Lee, “Territorialization and State Power in Thailand”, Theory and Society, Vol. 24 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶² Pieces such as Ulig, Spontaneous and Planned Settlement; Potter, Lesley, “The Onslaught on the Forests in Southeast Asia”, in South-east Asia's Environmental Future: the Search for Sustainability, ed. Brookfield, Harold and Byron, Yvonne (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, with United Nations University Press, 1993)Google Scholar; Vandergeest and Peluso, “Territorialization”; Peter Vandergeest, “Mapping Nature”, Society and Natural Resources, forthcoming; and Nancy Lee Peluso, “Counter-mapping Forest Territories of Kalimantan, Indonesia”, Antipode, forthcoming; show how governments used forest clearing and land settlement to extend territorial administrative control into upland and forested areas.

⁶³ Adas, Michael, “Colonization, Commercial Agriculture, and the Destruction of the Deltaic Rainforests of British Burma in the late 19th Century”, in Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth Century World Economy, ed. Tucker, Richard P. and Richards, John F. (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1983), pp. 95–110; Uhlig, Spontaneous and Planned Settlement.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Taungya” is a reforestation system used in teak and other forest types, in which peasants are allowed to plant agricultural crops between rows of teak. The peasants retain access to the land for crops for two or more years, depending on the local rules set by the forestry service. Teak then dominates the land use for the remaining years of its 60–100 year life cycle.

⁶⁵ Bryant, “Shifting the Cultivator”; Peluso, Rich Forests, Poor People; Pragtong and David Thomas, “Evolving Management Systems in Thailand”, in Keepers of the Forest.

⁶⁶ See, e.g., Dove, Michael, “Agroecology and the Mythology of the Javanese”, Indonesia no. 39 (1985): 1–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Palte, Jan, Upland Farming on Java, Indonesia: A Socio-economic Study of Upland Agriculture and Subsistence Under Population Pressure (Amsterdam & Utrecht: Koninklijk Nederlands Aardrijkskundig Genootschag & Geografisch Instituut Rijksuniversitet Utrecht, Nederlandse Geografische Studies, 1989)Google Scholar; and Hefner, Robert W., The Political Economy of Mountain Java (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Lesley Potter's phrase from “Onslaught”.

⁶⁸ Kummer, David M., Deforestation in the Postwar Philippines (University of Chicago Geography Research Paper no. 234, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992)Google Scholar; Pineda-Ofreno, R., “Debt and the Environment: The Philippine Experience”, in Southeast Asia's Environmental Future, ed. Brookfield, Harold and Byron, Yvonne (Tokyo; United Nations University Press, 1993), pp. 221–34Google Scholar; Bautista, Germelino M., “The Forestry Crisis in the Philippines: Nature, Causes, and Issues”, The Developing Economies 28, 1 (1990): 67–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶⁹ Shannon Smith, “The Politics of Indonesian Rainforests” (Clayton, Australia: Monash University, Center for Southeast Asian Studies Working Paper 76, 1992); Potter, “Onslaught”; Peluso, Rich Forests, Poor People.

⁷⁰ Hong, Evelyn, Natives of Sarawak: Survival in Borneo's Vanishing Forests (Penang: Institut Masyarakat, 1987).Google Scholar

⁷¹ Hirsch, Philip, The Political Economy of Environment in Thailand (Manila: Journal of Contemporary Asia Publishers, 1993)Google Scholar, and Hirsch, Development Dilemmas; Lohman, Larry, “Peasants, Plantations, and Pulp: The Politics of Eucalyptus in Thailand”, Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 23, 4 (1991): 3–18Google Scholar. For a regional perspective, see Lim and Gomes (eds.), THbal Peoples and Development.

⁷² Pineda-Ofreneo, “Debt and the Environment”.

⁷³ On Malaysia see Hong, Natives of Sarawak and Lim and Gomes (eds.), Tribal Peoples; on Indonesia see Barber, Charles V., Johnson, Nels C. and Hafild, Emmy, Breaking the Logjam: Obstacles to Forest Policy Reform in Indonesia and the United States (Washington: World Resources Institute, 1994)Google Scholar; Joan Hardjono, Indonesia: Resources, Ecology, and Environment; Smith, “Political Economy”; and, less comprehensively, Robison, Indonesia.

⁷⁴ Barber, et ai, Logjam; Robison, Indonesia.

⁷⁵ Hong, Natives of Sarawak; Aiken, Robert S. and Leigh, Colin H., Vanishing Rainforests: The Ecological Thinsition in Malaysia (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992).Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Peluso, Rich Forests, Poor People.

⁷⁷ Aiken and Leigh, Vanishing Rainforests.

⁷⁸ Hirsch, Political Economy, p. 67; Lohman, “Peasants”.

⁷⁹ Feeny, David, “Agricultural Expansion and Forest Depletion in Thailand, 1900–1975”, in World Deforestation in the Twentieth Century, ed. Richards, John F. and Tucker, Richard P. (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988), pp. 112–43Google Scholar; Hafner, “Forest and Policy Issues”; Pragtong and Thomas, “Evolving Management Systems”.

⁸⁰ This is the prevailing opinion among Thai NGOs, expressed, for example, in Shalardchai, “Forests and Deforestation”.

⁸¹ For example, Kummer, Deforestation; Pineda-Ofreneo, “Debt and the Environment”.

⁸² Percy Sajise and Elizabeth Omegan, “The Changing Upland Landscape of the Northern Philippines”, in Keepers of the Forest, ed. Poffenberger.

⁸³ On Indonesia, see, e.g. Smith, “Political Economy”; Cribb, “Politics of Protection”; and Otto Soemarwoto, “Human Ecology in Indonesia: the Search for Sustainability in Development”, in Indonesia: Resources, Ecology and Environment, ed. Joan Hardjono.

⁸⁴ See, for example, arguments for increasing the area under National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in Thailand, by Arbhabirama, Anat, Thailand: Natural Resources Profile (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1988).Google Scholar

⁸⁵ See, e.g., Broad, Robin and Cavanaugh, John, Plundering Paradise: The Struggle for the Environmentin the Philippines (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993)Google Scholar; Rush, James, The Last Tree: Reclaiming the Environment in Tropical Asia (New York: The Asia Society, 1991); Shalardchai, “Forests and Deforestation”.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Peluso, Nancy Lee, “Coercing Conservation: The Politics of State Resource Control”, Global Environmental Change 3, 2 (1993): 199–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁸⁷ As of 1994, the goal was to increase this “Protected Area System” to an astonishing 25 per cent of national territory.

⁸⁸ MIDAS Agronomics Company Ltd., Study of Conservation Forest Area: Demarcation, Protection and Occupancy in Thailand, Volume III (Bangkok). [Published in Thai by the Local Development Institute, Chermsak Pinthong (ed.), under the title Wiv/atanaakaan kong kaan bukberk thiidin tham kin, 1991.]

⁸⁹ Much of this discussion has not yet moved out of the NGO literature and popular media, but see, for example, newspaper articles on the controversy associated with plans associated with the Global Environmental Facility to move a Karen village out of a National Park (such as “Nowhere to Run”, Bangkok Post, 24 July 1994).

⁹⁰ See, e.g., Dove, , “Political Economy of Ignorance” and several other pieces on this and related themes, including “A Revisionist View of Tropical Deforestation and Development”, Environmental Conservation 20, 1 (1993): 17–24. Some contrasting views are found in William D. Sunderlin, “The Resistance of the Poor and the State's Call to Equity: A Perspective through Social Forestry in Java”, paper presented at the Annual Meetings of the Rural Sociological Society, 19–21 Aug 1991, Cincinnati, Ohio; Poffenberger (ed.), Keepers of the Forest and in Brookfield and Byron (eds.), Southeast Asia's Environmental Future.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁹¹ Belsky, Jill M., “Soil Conservation and Poverty”, Society and Natural Resources 7, 5 (1994): 429–44; see also, Potter, “Onslaught”.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁹² Lohmann, Larry, “Who Defends Biological Diversity: Conservation Strategies and the Case of Thailand”, The Ecologist 21, 1 (1991): 5–9.Google Scholar

⁹³ Examples of this outmoded approach include Ooi Jin Bee, “Depletion of Forest Resources in the Philippines” (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Asian Economic Research Unit Field Report Series No. 18, 1987) and Tropical Deforestation: The Tyranny of Time (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1993)Google Scholar; Kumar, Raj, The Forest Resources of Malaysia: Their Economics and Development (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1986).Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Examples include publications by the World Bank group led by Feder, Gershon, “Land Ownership Security and Farm Productivity: Evidence from Thailand”, Journal of Development Studies 24 (1987): 16–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Onchan, Tongroj (ed.), A Land Policy Study (Bangkok: The Thailand Development Research Institute, 1990).Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Bhruksasri, Wanat, “Problem Solving Through Understanding”, in Hill Tribes Today, ed. McKinnon, John and Vienne, Bernard (Bangkok: White Lotus-Orstom, 1989), pp. 227–48Google Scholar; Rambo, A. Terry, Primitive Polluters: Semang Impact on the Malaysian Tropical Forest Ecosystem (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan, 1985). Rambo challenges the assumption that “primitives” live in harmony with their environment.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ Christine Padoch, “The Woodlands of Ike”; other examples will be found among the sources cited above.

⁹⁷ See, e.g., Rambo, Terry, Gillogly, K. and Hutterer, Karl (eds.), Ethnic Diversity and the Control of Natural Resources in Southeast Asia (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1988).Google Scholar

⁹⁸ Brown, S. and Lugo, A.E., “Tropical Secondary Forests”, Journal of Tropical Ecology 6 (1990): 1–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁹⁹ Padoch, Christine and Peters, Charles, “Managed Forest Gardens in West Kalimantan, Indonesia”, in Potter, C.S., et al., Perspectives on Biodiversity: Case Studies of Genetic Resource Conservation and Development (Washington D.C.: AAAS, 1993)Google Scholar; Michon, G.M. and Bompard, J.M., ‘The Damar Forests of South Sumatra”, in Proceedings of the Third Round Table Conference on Dipterocarps, ed. Kostermanis, A.J.G.H. (Paris: MAB/UNESCO, 1987), pp. 3–17Google Scholar; Chin See Chung, , Agriculture and Resource Utilization in a Lowland Forest Kenyah Community (Kuching: Sarawak Museum Journal 35, Special Monograph no. 4, 1984).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ Francis Jana Lian, “On Threatened Peoples”, Southeast Asia's Environmental Future, ed. Brookfield and Byron, pp. 322–37.

¹⁰¹ Cramb, R.A., “Shifting Cultivation and Sustainable Agriculture in East Malaysia: A Longitudinal Case Study”, Agricultural Systems 42 (1993): 209–226CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also his piece “Shifting Cultivation and Resource Degradation in Sarawak: Perceptions and Policies”, Borneo Research Bulletin 21, 1 (1989): 22–49.Google Scholar

¹⁰² Sellato, Bernard, Nomades et Sedentarisation d Borneo: Histoire Economique et Sociale (Paris: Editions de l'EHESS, Etudes Insulindiennes/Archipel 9, 1989)Google Scholar. Some of the flavour of the original may be glimpsed in his paper “Myth, History and Modern Cultural Identity Among Hunter-Gathers: A Borneo Case”, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 24, 1 (1993): 18–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰³ See Hoffman, Carl, The Punan Hunters and Gatherers of Borneo (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Research Press, 1986)Google Scholar; and Sellato's comments in the Borneo Research Bulletin 20,2 (1988): 106–120. See also Brosius, Peter, “A Separate Reality; Comments on Hoffman's The Punan: Hunters and Gatherers of Borneo”, Borneo Research Bulletin 20, 2 (1988): 81–129.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁴ See, e.g., Thailand Development Research Institute and Thailand Environment Institute, Preparation of a National Strategy on Global Climate Change: Thailand (Bangkok: Thailand Development Research Institute, 1993).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ World Resources Report 1990–91 (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1991).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ See, e.g., Agarwal, A. & Narain, S., Global Warming in an Unequal World: a Case of Environmental Colonialism (New Delhi: Center for Science and Environment, 1990).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ Brookfield, Harold, “Environmental Colonialism, Tropical Deforestation, and Concerns other than Global Warming”, Global Environment Change (June 1992): 93–96.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ But see Brookfield, Potter and Bryon (eds.), In Place of the Forest.

¹⁰⁹ However, these reports are sometimes published by donor or other international organizations such as the FAO's Forest, Trees, and People and the Community Forestry monograph series.

¹¹⁰ Some of the many examples from Thailand include publications out of the Tribal Research Center, the Regional Community Forest Training Center, the Social Research Institute and the Resource Management and Development Program at the University of Chiangmai University, the Northeast Thailand Upland Social Forestry Project in Khon Kaen University, Kasetsart University, the Thailand Development Research Institute, and local NGO publishers such as the Local Development Institute.

¹¹¹ See the series edited by Fox, Jefferson, Voices from the Field, 5 vols. (Honolulu: East West Center, 1989–1993).Google Scholar

¹¹² See Tan-Kim-Yong, Uraiwan, “Participatory Land-Use Planning as a Sociological Methodology for Natural Resource Management”, Regional Development Dialogue 14, 1 (1993): 70–83Google Scholar, and other publications by the Resource Management and Development Program, Chiangmai University. In Khon Kaen see Chuntanaparb, Lert and Wood, Henry I., Management of Degraded Forest Land in Thailand (Khon Kaen: Northeast Thailand Upland Social Forestry Project, 1986).Google Scholar

¹¹³ Sajise, Percy, “Agroecosystem Analysis: the SUAN Approach”, in Agroecosystem Research for Rural Development, ed. Rerkasem, Kanok and Rambo, A.T. (Chiangmai: Multiple Cropping Center, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiangmai University and SUAN, 1988), pp. 9–31.Google Scholar

¹¹⁴ See various papers in Soemarwoto, Otto and Rambo, Terry, Impacts of Development on Human Activity Systems in Southeast Asia- Selected Papers from the First SUAN/EAPI Regional Research Symposium (Chiangmai: Chiangmai University Multiple Cropping Center, 1987).Google Scholar

¹¹⁵ SUAN, Swidden Agroecosystems in Sepone District, Savannakhet Province, Lao PDR (Khon Kaen, Thailand: The Southeast Asian Universities Agroecosystems Network Regional Secretariat, Khon Kaen University, 1991).Google Scholar

¹¹⁶ An important exception being Hirsch, Development Dilemmas, which is about people of “Thai” ethnicity.

¹¹⁷ See, e.g., David E. Thomas, “Village Land Use in Northeast Thailand: Predicting the Effects of Development Policies on Village Use of Wildlands” (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1988). Other materials include the SUAN publications produced at Khon Kaen University.Google Scholar

¹¹⁸ A few exceptions being Thomas M. Psota, “Forest Souls and Rice Dieties: Rituals in Hill Rice Cultivation and Forest Product Collection”, pp. 30–51, in The Rejang of Southern Sumatra (Centre for South-East Asian Studies at the Universtiy of Hull, Occasional Papers no. 19, 1992); Belsky, Jill, “Household Food Security, Farm Trees, and Agroforestry: A comparative Study in Indonesia and the Philippines”, Human Organization 52, 2 (1993): 130–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar