This paper is based on interviews and on personal letters, annual reports, and minutes of the Singapore Council of Women. These materials are found in the Singapore National Archives (Microfilm NA 2044) and the private collection of the family of Mrs Shirin Fozdar.

¹ See e.g. Charmian Chelvam, “The Women's Charter” (Unpublished B.A. Hons. Academic Exercise, Dept. of History, University of Singapore, 1972); Yu-lin Ooi, “The Changing Status of Chinese Women in Singapore 1879–1961” (Unpublished B.A. Hons. Academic Exercise, Dept. of History, National University of Singapore, 1981); Esther Quah, “Divorce among the Chinese in Singapore, 1819–1961” (Unpublished B.A. Hons. Academic Exercise, Dept. of History, National University of Singapore, 1989/90).

² The year 1952 saw a record 500 women listed as jurors. See Sunday Times, 20 01 1952Google Scholar.

³ Among the women JPs were Mrs Loh Poon Lip, Mrs Goh Kok Kee, Mrs Lim Boon Keng, Mrs Iky Lian Teck and Mrs Tan Chin Tuan.

⁴ Many of these volunteers were from existing women's organizations such as the Chinese Ladies' Association and the Young Women's Christian Association. See Social Welfare Dept. to Mrs S.K. Wong of the Chinese Ladies' Association, 15 Oct. 1948.

⁵ Interview with Mrs Goh Kok Kee, founder-member of Family Planning Association, 3 Feb. 1993.

⁶ The first municipal elections were held in 1949 and the first two women elected to the Municipal/City Council were Mrs Robert Eu in 1949 and Miss Amy Laycock in 1950. In 1951, two other women — Mrs Elizabeth Choy and Mrs Vilasini Menon made history when they became members of the Legislative Council.

⁷ In 1947, three women's groups' were formed: The Nanyang Girls' School Alumni Association, the Singapore Chung Hwa Girls' Old Students' Association, and the Singapore Cantonese Women Mutual Help Association. Registrar of Societies, 1945–50.

⁸ Of these, the more prominent ones were the Chinese Ladies Association (CLA), Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA), the Kamala Club, the Girls' Sports Club, Singapore Inner Wheel Club and the Malay Women's Welfare Association, all of which, except for the last two, had their origins before the war.

⁹ While associations such as the CLA had realised as early as 1948 that there was a need to discourage the practice of polygamy, no attempt was made as they found it “a controversial subject in public”. Minutes of the CLA, 1948–49.

¹⁰ Minutes of the pro tem committee of the SCW, 1951.

¹¹ The Star, 8 Sep. 1976; Business Times, 16–17 05 1987 (Weekend Edition)Google Scholar; Hongkong Standard, 12 Jun. 1987. See also Kail, Andree, “Housewives”, Chinese Women in Southeast Asia, eds. Lebra, Joyce and Paulson, Joy (Singapore: Times Books International, 1980), pp. 98–99Google Scholar.

¹² Straits Times (hereafter 57), 15 09 1950Google Scholar; ST; 20 Sep. 1950; ST; 21 Sep. 1950.

¹³ ST; 13 Oct. 1951.

¹⁴ Minutes of the pro tem committee of the SCW, 20 Nov. 1951.

¹⁵ Ibid.

¹⁶ Ibid. The United Nations Declaration of Human Rights was signed in 1948. Later, The UN Commission on the Status of Women, 1949, recommended to countries whose legal system resulted in the subordinate status of the wife, to permit freedom of choice in marriage, monogamy and equal rights to the dissolution of marriage.

¹⁷ The pro tem committee comprised Mrs Elizabeth Choy as President, Mrs Goh Kok Kee and Zahara as Vice Presidents, Mrs Vilasini Menon as Treasurer, Mrs Shirin Fozdar as Secretary and Mrs E.V. Davies, Mrs J. Alcock, Mrs A. Alsagoff and Mrs Helen Tan as committee members.

¹⁸ The Council was formed in 1925 with the aim of working for the improvement of the position of women and also for the establishment of a permanent link between women's organizations in the different provinces of India. See the Constitution of the National Council of Women in India, 1925.

¹⁹ 1952 Constitution of the SCW, registered with the Registrar of Societies.

²⁰ ST, 4 Apr. 1952; Singapore Free Press (hereafter SFP), 4 Apr. 1952.

²¹ This was quite remarkable bearing in mind that the CLA, the oldest Chinese women's association, had only a membership of 60–100 in 1950. AGM of the CLA 1948, 1951. It must be noted however that most of the members of the SWC were passive; and active members of the SCW numbered less than a hundred. See also ST, 2 Apr. 1953.

²² Minutes of the SCW 6 Jan. 1954; SCW to Director of Medical Services, circa 1953; SCW to the Vice Chancellor, University of Malaya, 26 May 1952; SCW to Managing Directors of factories, 1 Jul. 1952.

²³ Information obtained from an interview with Mrs Amy Ede (Miss Amy Laycock), 6 Nov. 1992, and Mrs Elizabeth Choy, 25 Oct. 1992, members of the pro tem committee of the SCW. Says Mrs Choy, “In those days, the social climate of the time was inimical to drastic ideas like equality of the sexes.”

²⁴ The draft constitution did not originally provide for individual membership. However, this was included at the request of certain members. Mrs R.A. Pohan, President of the Indonesian Women's Club, to SCW on the advantages of including an individual membership category, 26 May 1952.

²⁵ Mrs Seow Peck Leng, founder of the Siglap Girls' Club in 1954 (which later became the Singapore Women's Association), for instance, said of Mrs Shirin Fozdar: “At that time, her ideas were too radical, even for me. But then without her, the women rights movement wouldn't have begun.” Interview with Mrs Seow Peck Leng, 29 Nov. 1992.

²⁶ SFP, 4 Mar. 1952. In 1956 only the Young Women's Muslim Association and the International Women's Club showed an interest. Letter from SCW to all the women's associations in Singapore, 3 May 1956. See also minutes of the SCW, 19 Feb. 1957.

²⁷ The Indonesian Women's Club was represented on the SCW's committee by the presence of its President, Mrs R.A. Pohan; the Kamala Club was represented by its honorary treasurer, Mrs Helen Tan; the Chinese Ladies Association by its secretary Mrs Rosalie Hernon; the International Women's Club by its President Mrs S.G. Butcher; and the Inner Wheel by its President Mrs E.V. Davis. SFP, 7 May 1952, ST, 20 Oct. 1959.

²⁸ Minutes of the SCW, 18 Apr. 1952. The Kamala Club club house was another popular venue for the SCW.

²⁹ Chelvam's suggestion that the membership of the SCW comprised “elderly educated women” is therefore erroneous. “The Women's Charter”, p. 27.

³⁰ At the 1953 annual general meeting, for example, Mrs R.A. Pohan gave the annual report in Malay, Mrs Shufen Khoo in Chinese and Mrs George Lee in English. Minutes of the SCW, 6 Aug. 1953.

³¹ Minutes of the SCW, 14 Jun. 1957.

³² The media was also responsive as more and more women were becoming educated and entering the workforce. In 1952, for example, a radio feature called “Women's Magazine” dealing with subjects of feminine interest not often heard in Singapore, made its debut. ST, 22 Jan. 1952.

³³ See e.g. ST, 29 Feb. 1952, ST, 3 Aug. 1954, ST, 18 Mar. 1955, ST, 9 Mar. 1957, ST, 11.7.1957, ST; 22 Mar. 1958.

³⁴ Editorials commenting on the SCW's agenda appeared regularly throughout the fifties, e.g.: SFP, 10 Mar. 1952; SFP, 5 Apr. 1952; SFP, 29 Apr. 1952; Malay Mail (hereafter MM), 30 May 1955; MM, 9 Jul. 1955; MM, 25 Apr. 1958; Sunday Times, 22 06 1958Google Scholar; Singapore Tiger Standard, 27 Aug. 1958; SFP, 20 Oct. 1959; ST, 20 Oct. 1959.

³⁵ ST, 29 Apr. 1952; ST, 2 Mar. 1952; 57; 30 Dec. 1952; MM, 16 May 1952; Sunday Times, 16 03 1952Google Scholar; Sunday Times, 23 03 1952Google Scholar; SFP, 7 Aug. 1953; etc.

³⁶ ST, 17 Nov. 1951.

³⁷ ST, 22 Feb. 1952; ST, 29 Feb. 1952; ST, 6 Aug. 1957; SFP, 30 Aug. 1957; ST; 26 Jul. 1958; SFP, 15 Oct. 1959, Sunday Times, 2 08 1959Google Scholar. See also Rev. S.M. Thevathasan to SCW, 27 Feb. 1952; and Methodist Fellowship Group to SCW, n.d.

³⁸ Singapore Standard, 1 Dec. 1953; SCW to Governor-in-Council, 3 Jun. 1957; SFP, 15 Jul. 1958.

³⁹ SCW to President, International Council of Women, 6 Jan. 1959. Established in 1925 in Switzerland, the NCW was formed with the aim of strengthening and coordinating women's activities by federating the various women's associations in the world working for the improvement of the position of women and for social progress.

⁴⁰ National Director, YWCA of Malaya and Singapore to SCW, 31 May 1954.

⁴¹ Mrs Winnifred Holmes, overseas representative for the Women's Council of the United Kingdom was one of the members of the SCW. Mrs V.M. West, a former member of Britain's National Council of Women was a committee member of the SCW. The SCW also played host to visiting representatives of international affiliates such as Mrs Mary McLarty of the National Council of Women of South Africa in 1958. Minutes of the SCW, 9 Sep. 1953.

⁴² Chief, Women's Bureau, Liberal-Democratic Party of Japan to President, SCW, 27 Aug. 1957. Annual Report of the SCW, 1954, Letter from Consulate General for the Republic of Indonesia, Singapore, to the SCW, 26 Feb. 1954 and 18 Mar. 1954; Letter from Hong Kong Council of Women to SCW, 28 Jan. 1954.

⁴³ Representatives of the SCW, notably Mrs Shirin Fozdar and Mrs George Lee liaised with women's groups in Hong Kong, Vietnam, Cambodia, China and Britain and undertook lecture tours. Annual Report of the SCW 1954 & 1960; Sunday Times, 17 08 1958Google Scholar; SFP, 8 Aug. 1959; ST; 10 Aug. 1959; Sunday Times, 6 09 1959Google Scholar; 57; 8 Sep. 1959.

⁴⁴ SCW to Indonesian Women's Association, Djakarta, 26 Dec. 1953.

⁴⁵ SCW to General Neguib of Cairo, March 1954.

⁴⁵ SFP, 16 Jul. 1954.

⁴⁶ Governor Black was polite but non-commital, replying that he “would take note of it”. Minutes of the SCW, 30 Jul. 1958.

⁴⁷ Pressure was also felt within the SCW leadership for it to play a bigger role in community service. Vice-President Mrs Goh Kok Kee, for instance, felt that “we shall achieve most if we show that we are out to assess the needs of the women of Singapore and the potential contribution they would make to the community given the opportunity and the facilities, rather than to stress fighting for one's rights”. Interview with Mrs Goh Kok Kee. See also Mrs Goh to Shirin Fozdar, 11 Apr. 1952.

⁴⁹ Secretary for Social Welfare, T.E. Smith to SCW, 12 Aug. 1952 and 6 Mar. 1953.

⁵⁰ Minutes of the SCW, 7 Apr. 1953, 20 Oct. 1953 and 24 Nov. 1953.

⁵¹ The club was opened by Muriel Blythe, the wife of the Colonial Secretary. Mrs Muriel Blythe to SCW, 17 Feb. 1953.

⁵² ST, 2 Apr. 1953; SFP, 16 Feb. 1953; ST, 20 Feb. 1953. SCW also tried to find positions for girls from the club to train as midwives. Matron of Kandang Kerbau Hospital to SCW, 5 Dec. 1953. See also Open Letter of the SCW to the Privileged Women of Singapore, 25 Feb. 1953.

⁵³ Asst. Director of Education to SCW, 4.5.1953. Later, there was an attempt to start another girls' club in the Kim Keat area. Minutes of the SCW, 19 Sep. 1953, 20 Oct. 1953 and 16 Sep. 1957.

⁵⁴ Lee Seng Gee, Lee Rubber Co Ltd. to SCW, 2 Jul. 1952; Manager, Dunlop Rubber Purchasing Co. Ltd. to SCW, 3 Jul. 1952; and Manager, Malayan Breweries Ltd. to SCW, 14 Jul. 1952.

⁵⁵ SCW to Minister for Labour and Welfare, 16.9.1957; Minister for Labour and Welfare to SCW, 25 Sep. 1957. See also Lai, Ah Eng, Peasants, Proletariat and Prostitutes: A Preliminary Investigation in the Work of Chinese Women in Colonial Malaya (Singapore: ISEAS, 1986), pp. viii, 115CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁶ Sunday Times, 17 08 1958Google Scholar. See also Minutes of the SCW, 1 Jun. 1957; 18 Nov. 1957; and 19 Mar. 1958.

⁵⁷ SFP, 30 Jul. 1958. The SCW was chiefly handicapped by the lack of a building and made several attempts in this respect to secure one from philanthropist Lee Kong Chian as well as Chief Minister Lim Yew Hock. Minutes of the SCW, 16 Oct. 1957, 18 Nov. 1957 and 3 Jan. 1958.

⁵⁸ Things began to change however with the election victory of the People's Action Party (PAP) in 1959. In November 1959, a Women and Girls Advisory Committee was established by the government with the object of keeping prostitution under control through the suppression of brothels and vice racketeers. By 1960, the Social Welfare had become more fully involved in the rehabilitation and welfare of prostitutes and for this purpose, a separate section, the Women and Girls Welfare Section was established to concentrate its efforts in this field. The Women's Charter of 1961 also included increased penalties for offences against women and girls.

⁵⁹ Thus it was that in September 1953, a “furious discussion” of 300 members at the British Council ended with a commitment to fight for legislation to end polygamy. ST, 7 Aug. 1953; SFP, 8 Aug. 1953; Minutes of the SCW, 6 Aug. 1953.

⁶⁰ Freedman, Maurice, Colonial Law and Chinese Society (London: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 1952), p. 102Google Scholar.

⁶¹ The years 1946–60 show divorce on the increase. The Divorce Case Book of the High Court.

⁶² City Councillor Mrs Robert Eu (1949–57) and vice-president of the pro tem committee of the SCW, recalled: “Whenever, a mother came to see me in tears that her husband was taking another wife because she was three months pregnant, I had to tell lies to Immigration so as to prevent the man from importing another wife from Shanghai.” Lies were necessary because “if I had told the truth, they would say I was interfering in Chinese customs, so I had to say that he was importing a woman to be a prostitute”. Interview with Mrs Robert Eu, 11 Nov. 1992.

⁶³ Interview with Mrs George Lee, President of the SCW 1952–60 on 21 Nov. 1992. See also Depy Secy for Social Welfare to SCW, 4 Dec. 1953 and 17 Dec. 1953. Letters soliciting help also flowed in. See e.g. Kathi H. Zubir B. H. Md. Amin to SCW, 23 Jun. 1952, Kamail bin Abdullah to SCW, 2 Oct. 1957 and C.R. Devaraj to SCW, 1 Dec. 1953.

⁶⁴ Ooi, “The Changing Status of Chinese Women”, p. 86, argues that external forces from India and China played a major role in changing the perceptions of the people: “In the twentieth century, the forces of modernization and urbanization were especially influential in changing the perspectives of Chinese society, and concepts from the west were easily assimilated.” The role of women's groups such as the SCW, is downplayed.

⁶⁵ SCW members presented copies of the bill to members such as Lim Yew Hock, elected member for Keppel, E.J. Davies/QC (ex-officio), Thio Chan Bee JP elected member for Balestier, the Hon. Inche Ahmad bin Mohd. Ibrahim, nominated unofficial members, C.R. Dasaratha Raj, elected member of Rochore, G.W. Davis, Commissioner for Labour and nominated official members. Interview with Mrs Elizabeth Choy, president of pro tem committee of SCW and nominated unofficial member of the Legislative Council 1951–55.

⁶⁶ The bill was thus referred to a Select Committee, which was unable to complete its work before the dissolution of the Council in 1951. See Progress Report of the Select Committee appointed to examine and report on the age of Marriage Bill; also Colony of Singapore, Proceedings of the First Legislative Council (Singapore: Government Printing Office, 13 10 1950), pp. B381–90Google Scholar.

⁶⁷ SFP, 16 Jul. 1954.

⁶⁸ Minutes of the SCW, 8 Feb. 1954. Since 1952, Raj, the Labour member of the Legislative Council had wanted to tighten Hindu marriage laws and make them as binding as Christian marriage laws. ST, 21 Jan. 1952.

⁶⁹ Tamil Reform Association's memorandum to the Select Committee on the Hindu Monogamous Marriage Bill, 28 Jun. 1954.

⁷⁰ Colony of Singapore, Proceedings of the Second Legislative Council, 17 03 1954 and 13 04 1954 (Singapore: Government Printing Office), pp. B49, B79–84Google Scholar.

⁷¹ Colony of Singapore, Singapore Legislative Assembly Debates, 7 03 1956 (Singapore: Government Printing Office), pp. 1710–28Google Scholar. Also see ST, 8 Mar. 1957.

⁷² The reason the British gave was that they were waiting for similar developments in the Federation to occur first. Ibid., 11 Jun. 1958, p. 328.

⁷³ Minutes of the SCW, 5 Jan. 1954.

⁷⁴ SCW to Governor in Council, 5 May 1953.

⁷⁵ SCW to the Governor in Council, 3 Jun. 1957.

⁷⁶ Chief Secretary to Secretary of Internal Affairs, 20 Jun. 1957.

⁷⁷ Colonial Secretary to SCW, 23 Jul. 1952 and 27 Jul. 1953; Minutes of the SCW, 5 Jan. 1954.

⁷⁸ Secretary of Chinese Affairs to Comptroller of Immigration, 19 May 1954.

⁷⁹ Singapore Standard, 1 Dec. 1953. The colonial government gave two representatives from the SCW covered seats along the coronation route in London, which they accepted. Colonial Secretary's Office to SCW, 4 Mar. 1953.

⁸⁰ Controller of Immigration to Secretary for Chinese Affairs, 29 Mar. 1954.

⁸¹ SCW to Sir George Rendel, 14 Dec. 1953; Secretary of Constitutional Commission to SCW, 29 Dec. 1953.

⁸² For a Muslim couple to be divorced the husband must pronounce a ritual formula, stating to his wife “I divorce you”. If the husband pronounced a triple “talak”, stating “I divorce you” three times in succession, the divorce is irrevocable.

⁸³ Handbill distributed by the SCW, circa Dec. 1953/Jan. 1954. See also Minutes of SCW, 8 Jan. 1954, 12 Jan. 1954 and 9 Feb. 1954.

⁸⁴ Commissioner of Police to the SCW, 29 Jan. 1954. According to SCW committee member, Mrs Manisah Parbury, “The fight was hard and bitter so much so that Shirin Fozdar the secretary of the SCW was on two occasions threatened with murder”. ST, 9 Jul. 1957.

⁸⁵ Interview with Mrs George Lee, President of SCW, 21 Nov. 1992; and Cik Azizah Osman, SCW executive committee member, 10 Dec. 1992.

⁸⁶ SFP, 7 Jan. 1954.

⁸⁷ For more details, on the role and functions of the MAB, see Shahril bin Mohd. Shah, “The Muslim Advisory Board of Singapore 1947–1968” (B.A. Honours Academic Exercise, Dept. of History, National University of Singapore, 1989/90).

⁸⁸ Ahmad bin Mohd. Ibrahim and Abu Bakar Pawanchee were sympathetic to marriage reforms. Interview with Mrs M. Siraj, founder member of the Young Muslim Women's Association, 1952, on 11 Feb. 1993.

⁸⁹ Minutes of the SCW, 6 Aug. 1953; SCW to MAB, 14 Dec. 1953, 19 Mar. 1954; MAB to SCW, 18 Dec. 1953.

⁹⁰ SCW to Stanley Awbery, 8 Jan. 1954 and 9 Sep. 1954.

⁹¹ SCW to Stanley Awbery, 9 Sep. 1954.

⁹² The reply given was that no comprehensive statistics were available and that such matters were governed by religious and customary observances. Women problems were also, according to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, “not urgent enough to warrant special attention”. Reply from Hopkinson to Awbery, House of Commons, 27 Jan. 1954; Stanley Awbery to SCW, 21 Jan. 1954.

⁹³ SCW to President Nasser of Egypt, 8 Sep. 1955.

⁹⁴ SCW to all the Sultans of Malaya, 25 Nov. 1955; Private Secretary, Sultan of Johore to SCW, 1 Dec. 1955; Secretary, Sultan of Kedah to SCW, 7 Jan. 1956.

⁹⁵ The SCW referred such cases to Che UMNO Kaum Ibu as well as the Chief Minister, Tunfcu Abdul Rahman. From woman (name withheld) to SCW, 18 Mar. 1956; SCW to woman, 27 Mar. 1956; SCW to Chief Minister, Malay Federation, 27 Mar. 1956; SCW to UMNO Kaum Ibu, 27 Mar. 1956.

⁹⁶ There were talks that their name should be changed from the SCW to the MCW (Malayan Council of Women). As late as 1961, novelist Dr Han Suyin, then Vice-President of the SCW, urged that a similar SCW be established in the Peninsula. This however, never materialized. Minutes of the SCW, 26 Feb. 1961; Report of SCW Annual General Meeting 1958–59.

⁹⁷ Borneo Bulletin, 19 Mar. 1954; MM, 23 May 1955; ST, 20 Apr. 1958; MM, 25 Jul. 1960. See also Minutes of the SCW, 20 Jul. 1958.

⁹⁸ ST, 5 Feb. 1958; Weekender, 7 Mar. 1958.

⁹⁹ SCW to Tunku Abdul Rahman, 27 Oct. 1959; Private Secretary, Tunku Abdul Rahman to SCW, 29 Oct. 1959.

¹⁰⁰ MCA to SCW, 21 Jul. 1952, 23 Jul. 1952 and 19 Aug. 1952; SCW to MCA, 16 Aug. 1952, 8 Sep. 1952 and 26 Dec. 1953. In 1957, Dr. Lim Chong Eu of the MCA assured the SCW that “as soon as he had consolidated his position (politically) he would move in this matter” and that “in 1959 he would be in a position to introduce the much sought after reform in Chinese marriages”. Report of the Secretary, SCW, 1957–58.

¹⁰¹ ST, 7 Jun. 1958.

¹⁰² Turnbull, Mary C., A History of Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei, Rev. ed. (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1989)Google Scholar.

¹⁰³ See editorial entitled “Women Leaders”, MM, 25 Apr. 1958.

¹⁰⁴ MM, 30 May 1955. Women in the Federation were not ready and the National Council of Women's Organizations (NCWO), which may be said to be a near equivalent of the SCW, was formed only in 1963, with the expressed aim of raising the status of women by fighting for among other things, reforms in marriage and divorce laws and equal pay for men and women in the public sector.

¹⁰⁵ Singapore Legislative Assembly Debates, 26 04 1957, pp. 1656–65Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ Public opinion was also changing with fewer parents agreeing to give their daughters in marriage to a man whom they know to be already married. There was also a growing group of educated Muslim men and women who declared it to be reprehensible and sought justification for this opinion in an reinterpreta-tion of the Koranic text. Interview with Mrs M. Siraj, first women case-worker at the Syariah Court. See also PPSEAWA Singapore Bulletin (Singapore, 1960), p. 88Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁷ Singapore Legislative Assembly Debates, 21 11 1955, p. 968Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁸ Ibid., 5 Nov. 1956, pp. 433–37 and 26 Apr. 1957, pp. 1655–65. See also ST, 27 Apr. 1957.

¹⁰⁹ Due to the problem of finding a judge, the Shariah Court came into operation only towards the end of 1958. Minutes of the SCW, 19 Mar. 1958 and 23 Oct. 1958.

¹¹⁰ bin Ibrahim, Ahmad, “The Muslim Ordinance 1957 of Singapore”, Islamic World 1, no. 4 (07 1958): 4Google Scholar.

¹¹¹ Ten years later, on 1 Jul. 1968, the Administration of Muslim Law Act (Cap 42) repealed the Ordinance of 1957. In accordance with this new law, a man who wishes to undergo a second marriage is required to seek the approval of the kathi.

¹¹² SCW to the MAB, 6 Dec. 1955.

¹¹³ MAB to SCW, 12 Feb. 1958; SCW to MAB, 14 Dec. 1958.

¹¹⁴ SCW to Governor-in-Council, 3 Jun. 1957. See also SFP, 25 Apr. 1957.

¹¹⁵ Gordon, Shirle, “Marriage/Divorce in the Eleven States of Malaya and Singapore”, Intisari 2, no. 2 (1965): 23–25Google Scholar.

¹¹⁶ The Chinese Secretariat formed in 1946 had its origins in 1876 when a Chinese protectorate was formed. Between 1876 to 1941, it became known as a bureau to administer all matters pertaining to the Chinese community. In 1946, many of its functions were transferred to other departments and the post of Protectorate was abolished and the department was renamed the Chinese Secretariat. The department ceased to exist in 1958.

¹¹⁷ Secretary for Social Welfare to Secretary for Chinese Affairs, 6 May 1954.

¹¹⁸ SCW to CAB, 23 Aug. 1954; see also SCW to Secretary for Chinese Affairs, 11 Nov. 1954.

¹¹⁹ Report by the Secretary of Chinese Affairs, 24 Aug. 1957.

¹²⁰ SCW to CAB, 29 May 1954.

¹²¹ Secretary for Social Welfare to Secretary for Chinese Affairs, 6 May 1954.

¹²² On the other hand, the CAB felt that they could not ignore the question altogether especially as “they were under considerable pressure from the Singapore Council for women. If they were to refuse to discuss it and say anything at all, they would get a great deal of undesirable publicity from them.” Minutes of the CAB, 3 Dec. 1954.

¹²³ Minutes of the CAB, 3 Dec. 1954, 3 May 1955, 21 Jul. 1957; Secretary for Chinese Affairs to SCW, 11 Nov. 1954, 4 Jan. 1955.

¹²⁴ SCW to the CAB, 20 Nov. 1958. Also ST; 24 Sep. 1953.

¹²⁵ Minutes of CAB, 26 Feb. 1959. This vigorous campaign created some concern, causing the Chief Secretary to issue a memo: “Mrs Fozdar and her council have caused us much concern three years ago with a Bill for monogamy and we had to tell her to stop arousing Muslim feeling. Now she seems to be gunning for the Chinese. Could you tell us about present Chinese public opinion on monogamy, whether the CAB is interested in reforms and its attitude to a campaign by the SCW.” Chief Secretary, W.A.C. Goode, to Secretary of Internal Affairs, 20 Jun. 1957.

¹²⁶ Letter from CAB to SCW, 6 May 1959.

¹²⁷ SFP, 7 Jun. 1957; ST, 11 Jul 1959.

¹²⁸ Singapore Legislative Assembly Debates, 7 03 1956, p. 1719Google Scholar.

¹²⁹ In 1952, before the provision of automatic registration of voters provided by the Rendel Commission, the SCW had decided that the first task of their 15-member executive committee would be to start a door-to-door drive to enrol more members, while at the same time, cooperating with the supervisor of elections, to persuade women to register as voters. ST, 17 May 1952.

¹³⁰ Interview with Mrs Robert Eu and Mrs Amy Ede, members of the Municipal/City Council, 1949–57.

¹³¹ Interview with David Marshall, Chief Minister of Singapore, 1955–56, 18 Jan. 1993.

¹³² MM, 9 Jul. 1955; The Weekender, 4 Nov. 1955. See also J.M. Jumabhoy to Mrs Shirin Fozdar, 26 Apr. 1958; Lim Yew Hock to Shirin Fozdar, 29 Apr. 1958.

¹³³ Interview with David Marshall. See also SCW to Chief Minister (Lim Yew Hock), 3 Feb. 1958; and Lim Yew Hock to Shirin Fozdar, 22 Mar. 1956.

¹³⁴ Open letter from SCW to Chief Minister, 6 Jul. 1955. See also MM, 9 Jul. 1955.

¹³⁵ Rajaratnam, S., The Prophetic and the Political. Selected Speeches and Writings of S. Rajaratnam (New York: Graham Brash and St. Martin's Press, 1987), p. 29Google Scholar.

¹³⁶ In December 1955, the pro tem committee of the Women's League met to draft the constitution.

¹³⁷ Interview with PAP members, Dr Toh Chin Chye, 27 Jan. 1993, and S. Rajaratnam, 1 Feb. 1993.

¹³⁸ ST, 9 Mar. 1956; Fong, The PAP, p. 41, however, states that the women's day rally was held on 3 March 1955 rather than 8 March 1956. Fong, Sip Chee, The PAP Story: The Pioneering Years, Singapore, 1974Google Scholar.

¹³⁹ The rally was held at Badminton Hall, Happy World Stadium, the B.O.D. Civilian Association and Shenton Way. Interview with Ong Pang Boon, Organizing Secretary of PAP Tanjong Pagar Branch 1955–60, 23 Feb. 1993. See also Lian, Pang Cheng, Singapore People's Action Party (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 4Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁰ Interview with Ong Pang Boon. According to Ong, “little records were kept during those days for fear of police raids”.

¹⁴¹ ST, 4 Mar. 1957; ST, 9 Mar. 1957.

¹⁴² Minutes of the SCW, 19 Jun. 1957.

¹⁴³ Other criticisms of the PAP included the fact that up to then, the PAP had not put up any women candidates at the polls and that many PAP members were also polygamous. ST, 9 Mar. 1957.

¹⁴⁴ ST, 9 Mar. 1957.

¹⁴⁵ Sunday Times, 18 08 1957Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁶ ST, 7 Jun. 1957; SFP, 8 Sep. 1957; Sunday Times, 18 08 1957Google Scholar. During this time, SCW's Vice-President, Mrs Seow Peck Leng, also joined the Labour Front in an effort to push for women's rights.

¹⁴⁷ ST, 10 Jun. 1958; Singapore Standard, 10 Jun. 1958; Sunday Times, 22 06 1958Google Scholar. The Malay Women's Welfare Association however attributed the failure of the rally to the fact that not enough publicity of the event was given to the Muslim community. Singapore Standard, 22 Jun. 1958.

¹⁴⁸ Interview with Ong Pang Boon. See also Lian, Pang Cheng, Singapore, p. 4Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁹ PAP City Councillors Mdm Ho Puay Choo and Miss Chan Choy Siong were now heavily involved in City Council duties and preparing for the 1959 elections rather than women's issues.

¹⁵⁰ Miss Chan Choy Siong and Mdm Hoe Puay Choo from the Peoples' Action Party and Mrs Felice Leon-Soh from the Liberal Socialist.

¹⁵¹ Singapore Standard, 2 Apr. 1958; Annual report of the SCW, 1957–58; Chief Minister Lim Yew Hock to SCW, 26 Sep. 1957. See also Chief, Women's Bureau, Liberal-Democratic Party of Japan to President, SCW, 27 Aug. 1957.

¹⁵² In a letter to his Vice-President, E.K. Tan wrote: “You can let Mrs Fozdar know that this party will stand for equal rights for women on all counts whether any other political party supports it or not.” Mrs Felice Leon-Soh to Mrs Shirin Fozdar, 19 Aug. 1957. Mrs Leon-Soh also took the trouble to introduce some members for the SCW, 26 Feb. 1961.

¹⁵³ Interviews with Dr Toh Chin Chye, Chairman of the PAP in 1959 and Ong Pang Boon. Public opinion was also changing and leading citizens such as Lee Wee Nam, a banker, were coming out openly against polygamy.

¹⁵⁴ The Tasks Ahead, PAP's Five Year Plan 1959–64, Part I (Singapore, 1959), p. 7Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁵ Ong Chit Chung has argued that it was bread-and-butter issues which held the attention of the electorate and were the major points of contention for the electorate. See “The 1959 Singapore General Elections”, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 6, no. 1 (03, 1975)Google Scholar. Subsequent studies have also discounted the significance of women's votes.

¹⁵⁶ The PAP was also able to weather opposition from its more conservative members regarding the bold legal measures embodied in the Women's Charter.

¹⁵⁷ Mrs Janet Wee to SCW, 7 Jan. 1960.

¹⁵⁸ Interview with S. Rajaratnam. See also Sunday Times, 9 08 1959 and SCW to Ong Eng Guan, 26 10 1959Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁹ Assembly members Ho Puay Choo, Fung Yoke Ching, Chan Choy Siong, Sahorah bte Amat and Seow Peck Leng spoke up in favour of the bill and played an important part in pressing the Assembly for the early introduction of a new legislation to protect the interests of women in Singapore. Proceedings of the Legislative Assembly of Singapore, C443, vol. 14, pp. 1200–1210; vol. 12, p. 446.

¹⁶⁰ ST, 2 Mar. 1960.

¹⁶¹ Singapore Standard, 22 Jul. 1959. See also ST, 9 Aug. 1959.

¹⁶² ST, 9 Jul. 1959; SFP, 5 Mar. 1960. See also “Young Women Muslim Association”, PPSEAWA Singapore Bulletin (Singapore, 1960)Google Scholar.

¹⁶³ ST, 3 Mar. 1960.

¹⁶⁴ SFP, 5 Mar. 1960; ST, 16 Mar. 1960; and ST, 27 Mar. 1960.

¹⁶⁵ Chelvam, “The Women's Charter”, p. 30, makes little mention of the activities of the SCW and asserts that “it was the PAP's conscious policy towards the support of women's emancipation in Singapore society and their control of the Legislative Assembly in 1959 which made possible the enactment of the Women's Charter in 1961”.

¹⁶⁶ Sunday Times, 3 06 1962Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁷ Arifin, Jamilah, Women and Development in Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur: Pelanduk Publications, 1992), pp. 155–61Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁸ United Nations Department of Public Information. Basic Facts about the United Nations (New York: UN Publications, 1980)Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁹ Ibid.

¹⁷⁰ SFP, 4 Sep. 1961.

¹⁷¹ In 1961, Mrs Fozdar decided to leave Singapore to start a school in Yasothorn province in northeastern Thailand. She was not to return until 1975. See ST, 21 Apr. 1961; SFP, 22 Apr. 1961; SFP, 26 Apr. 1961; New Nation, 9 Sep. 1977.

¹⁷² Interview with Mrs Seow Peck Leng. The Siglap Girls' Club was formed in 1954.

¹⁷³ Formed by Chinese-educated pro-Communist women in 1955, the SWF carried much of the same social aims as the SCW in their constitution, for example, the unity of women irrespective of race, religion and nationality, the striving for equal political, legal and economic rights for women and the encouragement of friendship and understanding among women. See Constitution of the SWF, Registrar of Societies, Singapore.

¹⁷⁴ In February 1957, “appalled that women teachers were not enjoying the same salary as their fellow male colleagues”, SCW Vice-President Mrs Seow founded the SWA with the aim of fighting for “equal pay for equal work” as well as the abolition of polygamy. See SFP, 21 Oct. 1957 and 15 Jul. 1958.

¹⁷⁵ The formation of PPSEAWA in 1958 was inspired by several members of the SCW who attended the PPSEAWA regional conference in Tokyo in 1957. SCW members Mrs Seow Peck Leng and Mrs Rosalie Hernon sat on the first executive committee of the PPSEAWA. See Minutes of the SCW, 14 May 1958 and 19 Sep. 1958. Also PPSEAWA Singapore Bulletin (Singapore, 1960), p. 13Google Scholar.

¹⁷⁶ To date, there has been three Singapore councils of women: The SCW formed in 1952, the National Council of Women (NCW) formed in 1975, and the Singapore Council of Women's Organizations (SCWO), formed in 1980.