Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-06T10:57:12.588Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

‘The salvational currents of emigration’: Racial theories and social disputes in the Philippines at the end of the nineteenth century

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 October 2018

Florentino Rodao
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article analyses the changing significance of racial theories in the writings of Spanish emigrants in the late nineteenth century Philippines. Works by Antonio Cañamaque, Pablo Feced (Quioquiap), and Antonio Barrantes show how racialised understandings of colonial society in the Philippines evolved, from an initial dismissal of hybridism and rejection of mestizos to assertions of the innate superiority of the ‘white race’ and advocation of a rigid separation between local communities. These developments are considered in the context of the rising popularity of biological determinism alongside an influx of Spanish emigrants into the Philippines. The Spanish settlers used biological determinism to proclaim their role as the sole purveyors of both ‘progress’ and of a kind of egalitarianism. This article describes these debates and arguments, analyses their inconsistencies, and addresses the Filipino elite's responses to the settlers’ racial theories. These responses are read not simply as part of the development of Filipino nationalism, but as reflective of rivalries within the Spanish colonial community in the Philippines, where the locally born found additional reasons to support anticolonialism.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies , Volume 49 , Issue 3 , October 2018 , pp. 426 - 444
Copyright
Copyright © The National University of Singapore 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This study has been supported by funds from the Research Project HAR2009-13630 (Sub-program HIST) of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, which forms part of the Grupo de Investigación de Historia de las Relaciones Internacionales (GHistRi), reference CAM: CCGO7 UCM/HUM-2974. Group Code: 941072. My thanks to those who have read earlier versions of this text and helped to define its arguments, including Raquel A.G. Reyes, José Antonio Sánchez Román, Lanny Thompson, Alfred W. McCoy, Sasha D. Pack, Antonio Niño, Ruth de Llobet and Jim Richardson. Juan Inarejos was very helpful with some of the Spanish scholarship.

References

1 Authors who have most recently addressed this include Kramer, Paul A., The blood of government: Race, empire, the United States and the Philippines (Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2006), pp. 35–82Google Scholar; Reyes, Raquel A.G., Love, passion and patriotism: Sexuality and the Philippine propaganda movement, 1882–1892 (Singapore: NUS Press, 2008), pp. 85–90Google Scholar, 200–202; Owen, Norman G., ‘Masculinity and national identity in the 19th century Philippines’, Illes i Imperis 2 (1999): 25–32Google Scholar.

2 See Ruth de Llobet, ‘Orphans of empire: Bourbon reforms, constitutional impasse and the rise of Filipino Creole consciousness in an age of revolution’ (PhD diss., University of Wisonsin–Madison, 2011); Donoso, Isaac, Ennoblece: Historia de las instituciones de la Comunidad Española en Filipinas (Manila: Sociedad Española de Beneficencia, 2015)Google Scholar; Rodao, Florentino, ‘De colonizadores a residentes: Los españoles ante la transición imperial en Filipinas’, in Filipinas: Un país entre dos imperios, ed. Elizalde, Maria D. and Delgado, Josep M. (Barcelona: Bellaterra, 2011), pp. 251–63Google Scholar; and Rodao, F., Franquistas sin Franco: Una historia alternativa de la Guerra Civil española en Filipinas (Granada: Comares, 2012)Google Scholar.

3 Taylor, Jean G., The social world of Batavia: European and Eurasian in Dutch Asia (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983)Google Scholar; Stoler, Ann L., Race and the education of desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the colonial order of things (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), pp. 107–8Google Scholar, and Carnal knowledge and imperial power: Race and the intimate in colonial rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002)Google Scholar. See also Bosma, Ulbe and Raben, Remco, Being ‘Dutch’ in the Indies: A history of creolization and empire, 1500–1920, 2nd ed. (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2008)Google Scholar.

4 Kramer, The blood of government, pp. 35, 74.

5 Schmidt-Nowara, Christopher, ‘Imperio y crisis colonial’, in Mas se perdió en Cuba: España, 1898 y la crisis de fin de siglo, ed. Pan-Montojo, Juan (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 2006), p. 38Google Scholar.

6 See Hill, Ruth, ‘Between black and white: A critical race theory approach to caste poetry in the Spanish New World’, Comparative Literature 59, 4 (2007): 270CrossRefGoogle Scholar. In the case of Spain, academic contributions are rare, as shown in the most recent history of Spain, written by some of the most prestigious historians. According to the indexes, the terms ‘race’ or ‘racism’ are not used at all. Villares, Ramón and Fontana, Josep, eds., Historia de España, 12 vols. (Barcelona-Madrid: Crítica-Marcial Pons, 2007–17)Google Scholar. This lack of domestic interest has been partly compensated by international authors such as Max S. Hering, Joshua Goode and David Marcilhacy.

7 See Kramer, The blood of government, p. 40; Schmidt-Nowara, ‘Imperio y crisis’, p. 61; Reyes, Love, passion, p. 87; Gómez, Luis Ángel Sánchez, Un imperio en la vitrina: El colonialismo español en el Pacífico y la Exposición de Filipinas de 1887 (Madrid: CSIC, 2003), p. 162Google Scholar.

8 See Blanco, John D. ‘Race as praxis in the Philippines at the turn of the twentieth century’, Southeast Asian Studies 49, 3 (2011): 358Google Scholar, 360. Glória Cano dismisses the influence of racism on the grounds that Spanish conservatives were more critical of Filipinos than Spanish liberals were and, as such, criticisms of the ilustrados were ‘more politically than racially motivated’ (Cano, Glória, ‘Review: Luis A. Sánchez Gómez, Un imperio en la vitrina’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 36, 2 [2005]: 332Google Scholar), while Sánchez Gómez puts on the same level both parties’ perceptions of the Filipinos and stresses the need to distinguish racism from dismissiveness (Sánchez Gómez, unpublished response to the author).

9 Aguilar, Filomeno V., ‘Tracing origins: Ilustrado nationalism and the racial science of migration waves’, Journal of Asian Studies 64, 3 (2005): 631CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Blanco, ‘Race as praxis’, p. 388.

11 Besides Cañamaque, Feced and Barrantes, Rizal refers routinely to Fray Gaspar de San Agustín, OSA (1651–1724) and to Sinibaldo de Mas (1809–68). Valdés, Antonio Cortijo, Biografía del Excmo. Sr. D. Vicente Barrantes (Madrid: Julián Peña, 1873), pp. 29–30Google Scholar.

12 Franco, Juan Hernández, Sangre limpia, sangre española: El debate de los estatutos de limpieza (siglos XV–XVII) (Madrid: Cátedra, 2011), p. 20Google Scholar.

13 Stolcke, Verena, Racismo y sexualidad en la Cuba colonial (México DF: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1992), p. 47Google Scholar.

14 Hill, ‘Between black and white’, p. 272; Ellis, Robert Richmond, They need nothing: Hispanic–Asian encounters of the colonial period (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2012), p. 9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Torres, Max S. Hering, ‘Cuerpo, Misoginia y Raza: España y América en los siglos XVIXVII’, in Desvelando el Cuerpo: Perspectivas desde las ciencias sociales y humanas, ed. Martí, Josep, Aixelà, Yolanda et al. (Barcelona: CSIC; Institución Milà i Fontanals, 2010), p. 152Google Scholar.

16 Núñez, Xosé-Manoel, ‘Nation-building and regional integration: The case of the Spanish Empire’, in Nationalizing empires, ed. Berger, Stefan and Miller, Alexei (Budapest and New York: Central European University Press, 2015), pp. 211, 215–16Google Scholar.

17 Kramer, The blood of government, p. 39.

18 Arrizón, Alicia, Queering mestizaje: Transculturation and performance (Ann Arbor: Michigan University Press, 2006), p. 126CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 Edgar Wickberg's studies have shown the multiple social levels in which the Chinese minority operated and also its role as an active agent of ‘hispanisation’. Wickberg, E., ‘The Chinese mestizo in Philippine history’, Journal of Southeast Asian History 5, 1 (1964): 99CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 De Llobet, ‘Orphans of empire’, pp. 6–7.

21 ‘Proyecto de Constitucion Federal de la República Española’, http://www.congreso.es/docu/constituciones/1869/cons1873_cd.pdf (last accessed 12 Sept. 2014). Translated in Aseniero, George, ‘From Cádiz to La Liga: The Spanish context of Rizal's political thought’, Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia 49, 1 (2013): 38Google Scholar.

22 del Castillo, Antonio Cánovas, Discurso sobre la nación, Ateneo de Madrid, 6 noviembre de 1882, Introduction by de Blas, Andrés (Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva, 1997), pp. 81–2Google Scholar.

23 Soldevilla, Consuelo, La emigración de Cantabria a América: Hombres, mercaderías y capitales (Santander: Ayuntamiento de Santander, 1996), p. 83Google Scholar.

24 Rueda, Germán, Emigrantes españoles en América (siglos XVI–XX) (Madrid: Arco Libros, 2000), pp. 16, 24Google Scholar.

25 Ferrer, Ada, Insurgent Cuba: Race, nation, and revolution, 1868–1898 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), pp. 96–7Google Scholar; Rueda, Emigrantes españoles, pp. 57–8.

26 The census of 1876, carried out by the Archbishop of Manila, refers to ‘non taxpayers’; civilians (private Spaniards, peninsulares and insulares resident in the archipelago); functionaries (‘civil corporations and their branches’); ‘clergy and religious corporations’ (including Filipinos) and military personnel (from the army and navy, perhaps not all of whom were Spanish), Censo de población de las Islas Filipinas perteneciente al año de 1876 (Manila: Real Colegio de Sto. Tomás, 1878), pp. 40, 46Google Scholar. On the census of 1894 for the entire General Philippine Government (that is, including the islands of Micronesia), see Guía oficial de Filipinas, 1896 (Manila: Secretaría del Gobierno General, 1896), p. 213Google Scholar.

27 On how the first constitutional period set the tone for later political claims by natives and Chinese mestizos, see de Llobet, Ruth, ‘Chinese mestizo and natives' disputes in Manila and the 1812 Constitution: Old privileges and new political realities (1813–15)’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 45, 2 (2014): 213–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28 Rueda, Emigrantes españoles, pp. 22, 60, 69–70.

29 See Rodao, ‘De colonizadores’, pp. 276–7.

30 Cañamaque, Francisco y Jiménez, , Recuerdos de Filipinas: Cosas, casos y usos de aquellas islas: vistos, oídos, tocados y contados, vol. I (Madrid: Librería de Anillo y Rodríguez, 1877), vol. II (Madrid: Librería Simón y Osler, 1879)Google Scholar, and Las Islas Filipinas (de todo un poco) (Madrid: Librería de Fernando Fe, 1880)Google Scholar; hereafter Recuerdos I, Recuerdos II, and Las Islas. Cañamaque reported the sale of 2,000 copies of vol. 1 (including 150 in Germany), and also the reprinting in the daily press of some chapters in Recuerdos II, pp. viii–ix, xiv, and Las Islas, pp. 15, 54. Two articles in French using Cañamaque's name although not fully authored by him (on Zambales province and on the territorial dispute in Mindanao) were published by the Bulletin de la Société Académique Indo-Chinoise (1881).

31 Feced, Pablo, Filipinas: Esbozos y pinceladas (Manila: Ramírez y Compañía, 1886)Google Scholar, hereafter Esbozos.

32 Bazán, Emilia Pardo, ‘La España Remota’ [Faraway Spain], Nuevo Teatro Crítico 1, 3 (Mar. 1891): 75–81Google Scholar; http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra-visor/nuevo-teatro-critico--27/html/028eedd4-82b2-11df-acc7-002185ce6064_78.html (last accessed 15 Sept. 2015).

33 Blumentritt, Fernando, El Noli me Tangere de Rizal (Barcelona: Imprenta Ibérica de Francisco Fossas, 1889), p. 14Google Scholar.

34 Barrantes, Vicente, El Teatro Tagalo (Madrid: Manuel Ginés Hernández, 1890)Google Scholar.

35 See letter to Blumentritt, Berlin, 19 Apr. 1887, in The Rizal–Blumentritt correspondence, vol. II, part 2 (Manila: Jose Rizal National Centennial Commission, 1961)Google Scholar [hereafter Correspondence], p. 73.

36 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, p. 6, http://www.congreso.es/portal/page/portal/Congreso/Congreso/SDocum/ArchCon/SDHistoDipu/SDBuscHisDip (last accessed 12 July 2014).

37 Feced mentions a letter to him at ‘Catlagán’, but this location does not appear in the 1903 census; Esbozos, pp. 12, 219, and see also pp. 357–8. His brother José wrote a book aimed at helping the Spanish understand how to move through the local administration: Feced, José, Manual del gobernadorcillo en el ejercicio de sus atribuciones (1867, 1880)Google Scholar. Both biographies in Enciclopedia universal ilustrada Europeo-Americana, vol. 23 (Madrid: Espasa, 1924), pp. 474–5Google Scholar.

38 Aseniero, ‘From Cádiz to La Liga’, p. 41; ‘Pablo Feced’, in Enciclopedia universal, p. 474.

39 Laziness (Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, p. 163; Barrantes, Teatro, pp. 8, 129); submissiveness (Recuerdos I, pp. 13, 26–7, 133; Feced, Esbozos, pp. 35, 106, 108, 203–4, 226); indolence (Recuerdos I, pp. 59, 134, 163, 283–4; Esbozos, pp. 32, 108, 111, 119, 125–7, 137, 140, 212, 221, 226, 261–2, 290, 348); impassivity (Recuerdos I, pp. 12, 17, 61, 134, 283–4; Esbozos, pp. 8, 168, 191, 262, 290, 326); given to gambling (Recuerdos I, pp. 169, 174; Esbozos, p. 263); non-intelligence (Recuerdos I, p. 116; Esbozos, pp. 32, 70–71, 92–3, 110, 113, 126, 214, 261, 279, 296); and non-familial sentiment (Recuerdos I, pp. 169, 174; Esbozos, p. 263).

40 Mysteriousness (Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, pp. 131–2); irrationality (ibid., pp. 46, 206); contradictory (ibid., pp. 141, 109, 206); superstitiousness (ibid., pp. 143–4; 168).

41 Vanity (Feced, Esbozos, pp. 64, 113, 199–202, 204, 206, 215); primitivism (ibid., pp. 109, 119, 279, 311); alcoholism (ibid., pp. 106–7); social behaviours (ibid., pp. 110–11, 201, 206, 221); physical descriptions (ibid., pp. 20, 54–6, 68, 77, 90, 193, 203, 296); effeminacy (ibid., pp. 174, 213).

42 Honesty (Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, pp. 6, 24, 78, 136, 185–6); skilled (ibid, p. 113); loyalty (ibid., p. 139); lack of attachment to material goods (ibid., pp. 154–7); temperance (ibid., p. 135).

43 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, p. 79.

44 Ibid., p. 144. On societal empowerment through religiosity, see pp. 113, 276–7, 279. In his prologue to Recuerdos I, Prados de la Escosura also notes that Cañamaque balances his criticisms of Filipinos with similar observations about his fellow Spaniards (ibid., p. xii).

45 Feced's only description of the Filipinos which was more positive than Cañamaque's is in regard to their cleanliness. Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, p. 68; Feced, Esbozos, p. 55.

46 Feced, Esbozos, pp. 8, 55, 176, 214, 226.

47 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, pp. 79–80, 159–61.

48 Feced, Esbozos, pp. 192, 269–70.

49 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, pp. xvii–xviii, 215; Feced, Esbozos, p. 211.

50 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, p. 247; Recuerdos II, pp. 43–4, 100, 103; Feced, Esbozos, pp. 206, 213.

51 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, pp. 148, 199, 203–4, 208, 247; Recuerdos II, p. 44.

52 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, pp. 174–5, 193, 230–8; Recuerdos II, p. 14; see also Barrantes, Teatro, p. 138.

53 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, p. 208; Recuerdos II, p. 201.

54 Feced, Esbozos, p. 79; see also pp. 56, 91, 192.

55 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, pp. 281, 286; Feced, Esbozos, pp. 39, 131, 280.

56 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, pp. 199–201; Feced, Esbozos, pp. 77–9, 129, 192, 206, 253, 350.

57 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, p. 201.

58 Feced, Esbozos, pp. 76–7, 80, 82, 205, 215, 272; see also pp. 106–7, 129.

59 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, pp. 31–2, 145, 187–8, 192–3, 214, 270; Recuerdos II, p. xviii; Feced, Esbozos, pp. 215–16, 241–5.

60 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, pp. 254, 278; Cañamaque, Las Islas, pp. 14, 240; Feced, Esbozos, pp. 9–10, 220, 348.

61 Cañamaque, Las Islas, p. 59.

62 Ibid., p. 62.

63 Feced, Esbozos, pp. 82, 122, 225, 366.

64 Ibid., pp. 11, 31, 40–41, 128–9, 148–9, 166–7, 170, 211, 213, 291, 340.

65 Aguilar, ‘Tracing origins’, p. 626; Wickberg, ‘Chinese mestizo’, p. 32; Feced, Esbozos, p. 210.

66 Feced, Esbozos, p. 210.

67 Cañamaque, Recuerdos II, p. 29; also Recuerdos I, pp. 254, 256, 275, 279–80; Las Islas, pp. 57–8.

68 Feced, Esbozos, pp. 129–30; see also pp. 13, 76, 125, 212.

69 Ibid., p. 114.

70 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, pp. 280–83; Feced, Esbozos, pp. 79, 81.

71 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, pp. 79, 188, 205.

72 Feced, Esbozos, pp. 243, 350. See Bosma and Raben, Being ‘Dutch’ in the Indies, p. 281, on the laws for repatriating new arrivals who had no means of sustaining themselves in the Dutch East Indies.

73 ‘Milagros todos de este país oriental’. Feced, Esbozos, p. 148.

74 Ibid. A reference to the ‘invincible repugnance toward contact’, p. 108.

75 Ibid.

76 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, p. 224; also, pp. 128, 227; Recuerdos II, p. 22. See also De la Escosura, ‘Prólogo’, p. xvi.

77 Feced, Esbozos, pp. 8, 110, 127, 200, 213, 215, 343, 360.

78 Ibid., p. 260; also pp. 128, 223, 261–2.

79 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, pp. 223–4; Feced, Esbozos, p. 11.

80 Aguilar, ‘Tracing origins’, p. 626; Wickberg, ‘Chinese mestizo’, p. 32.

81 Feced, Esbozos, pp. 131, 339. Dedications to Minister Balaguer in Cañamaque, Las Islas, pp. 5–6, and Feced, Esbozos, pp. 266–7.

82 Cañamaque defines himself as a liberal, Las Islas, p. 60. Feced volunteered to fight against the Carlist traditionalists; ‘Pablo Feced’, in Enciclopedia universal, p. 474.

83 Cañamaque, Las Islas, pp. 60–61.

84 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, pp. 6, 175, 261, 268–9.

85 Ibid., pp. 21, 41, 74–7; Recuerdos II, pp. 81, 109.

86 Feced, Esbozos, pp. 12, 300.

87 On the contrast between the richness and fecundity of the land and the poverty of its inhabitants, see for example, ibid., pp. 103, 120–21, 125–6, 199–201, 241, 252, 279, 282, 359.

88 Rizal to Blumentritt, Berlin, 21 Feb. 1887, in Correspondence, p. 51.

89 Ibid.

90 De la Escosura, ‘Prólogo’, p. xx.

91 For example, Feced quotes ethnologist A. Fedor Jagor (whom he refers to as Gagor), José Gimeno Agius, author of a book on the liberalisation of the tobacco industry (1878), and a ‘professor from Manila’, apparently José Moreno Lacalle. He also mentions Indonesia's adat (tradition), but he does not specify its meaning. Esbozos, pp. 145, 148.

92 Feced, Esbozos, p. 108.

93 de Mas, Sinibaldo, Informe secreto sobre el estado de las Filipinas en 1842, vol. 3 (Madrid: Sancha, 1843), pp. 50–52Google Scholar, 250.

94 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, pp. 4, 46, 58.

95 Feced, Esbozos, p. 261.

96 Cañamaque, Recuerdos I, pp. 193, 212–13; De la Escosura, ‘Prólogo’, p. xiv; Feced, Esbozos, pp. 41, 48.

97 The concept of ‘democracy’ had caused a great reaction among Spanish conservatists. It had already been accepted by Pope Leon XIII and had, at the time, already begun to be circulated within the workers’ movement. Sebastián, Javier Fernández, ‘Democracia’, in Diccionario de conceptos políticos y sociales del siglo XIX español, ed. Sebastián, J. Fernández and Fuentes, Juan Francisco (Madrid: Alianza, 2002), pp. 225–8Google Scholar.

98 For example, ‘physiology’, ‘ethnology’, ‘anthropology’, ‘criminalogy’, ‘atrophy’, and ‘a-dynamic’, his principle point of reference being Fedor Jagor. See Feced, Esbozos, pp. 261, 311, 329–30. See also Gómez, Luis A. Sánchez, ‘“Ellos y Nosotros” y “Los Indios de Filipinas”, artículos de Pablo Feced y Graciano López Jaena (1887)’, Revista Española del Pacífico 8 (1998): 316Google Scholar.

99 He uses the term in plural, ‘eugenesias’. Feced, Esbozos, p. 354.

100 Rizal's appreciation of Jagor, Letter to Blumentritt, Berlin, 12 Jan. 1887, in Correspondence, p. 39.

101 Ibid., p. 341.

102 José María Portillo Valdés, ‘Estado’, in Diccionario, p. 301. See also George Aseniero, ‘From Cádiz to La Liga’, pp. 11–49.

103 Feced, Esbozos, p. 140.

104 See Rizal's comments after having looked up the term in the Spanish dictionary; José Rizal, letter to Blumentritt, Berlin, 30 Dec. 1886, in Correspondence, pp. 33–4.

105 Feced, Esbozos, p. 353. For other comments on science, see pp. 297–8, 347.

106 Feced, Esbozos, n.p. (introd.); Barrantes, Teatro, p. 8.

107 Feced, Esbozos, pp. 13, 63, 108.

108 Cañamaque, Recuerdos II, p. xvii; p. 13.

109 Ibid., p. xiii.

110 Ibid.

111 Ibid.

112 For the Dutch East Indies, see Stoler, Ann L., ‘Sexual affronts and racial frontiers’, in Tensions of empire: Colonial cultures in a bourgeois world, ed. Cooper, Frederick and Stoler, Ann L. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), pp. 214–15Google Scholar.

113 Blumentritt, Ferdinand, ‘Race question in the Philippine Islands’, in Deutsche rundschau [after July 1898], translated in Appleton's Popular Science Monthly (Aug. 1899), and republished in Philippine Historical Review 1, 2 (1966): 235Google Scholar.

114 LeRoy, James, ‘The Philippines 1860–1898: Some comment and bibliographical notes’, in The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898, ed. Blair, Emma J. and Robertson, James H., vol. 52 (Cleveland, OH: Arthur H. Clark, 1907), p. 164Google Scholar. CD-ROM, produced by Antonio Emmanuel A. Defenso (Quezon City: Bank of the Philippines, 2000).

115 Barrantes, Teatro, p. 138.

116 More examples, in ibid., pp. 226, 283. On Cuba, see Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba, pp. 9–12.

117 Reyes, Love, passion, pp. 87–90.

118 Rizal, Letter to Blumentritt, Berlin, 19 Apr. 1887, in Correspondence, p. 72.

119 Rizal, José, ‘The Philippines a century hence’, part III, Barcelona, La Solidaridad 1, 21, 15 Dec. 1989, pp. 507–8Google Scholar. Trans. by Guadalupe Fores-Ganzo (Manila: Fundación Santiago, n.d.). For a comparison of Blumentritt's opinions with those of the ilustrados, see Aguilar, ‘Tracing origins’, p. 608.

120 Schmidt-Nowara, ‘Imperio y crisis’, p. 54; Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba, p. 191.

121 Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba, p. 191.

122 Aguilar, ‘Tracing origins’, p. 631.

123 Kramer, The blood of government, p. 73; Salman, Michael, ‘Confabulating American colonial knowledge in the Philippines: What the social life of Jose E. Marco's forgeries and Ahmed Chalabi can tell us about epistemologies of empire’, in Colonial crucible: Empire in the making of the modern American state, ed. McCoy, Alfred W. and Scarano, Francisco A. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001), pp. 259–70Google Scholar.