1 See, for instance, Abraham, Collin E.R., Divide and rule: The roots of race relations in Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur: Institute for Social Analysis, 1997), p. 13Google Scholar; Alatas, Syed Hussein, The myth of the lazy native (London: Frank Cass, 1977), p. 7Google Scholar; Barr, Michael D., ‘Lee Kuan Yew: Race, culture and genes’, Journal of Contemporary Asia, 29, 2 (1999): 145–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stenson, Michael, Class, race and colonialism in West Malaysia: The Indian case (Brisbane: University of Queensland, 1980)Google Scholar.

2 Loos, Tamara, ‘History of sex and the state in Southeast Asia: Class, intimacy and invisibility’, Citizenship Studies, 12, 1 (2008): 29, 33CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Ibid.

4 Vallance, Elizabeth, ‘Hiding the hidden curriculum: An interpretation of the language of justification in the 19th century educational reform’, in The hidden curriculum and moral education, ed. Giroux, Henry and Purpel, D. (Berkeley: McCutchan, 1983), p. 10Google Scholar; ‘Untitled answers to the Legislative Council [Singapore] by Bro. Lothaire, principal of St. Joseph's Institution’ [n.d.. probably 1880s], file D201, doc. i. De La Salle Provincialate, Petaling Jaya; Bro. James, ‘Staffing of St. John's and St. Paul's, 1931’, 23 May 1931, Penang, B296, De La Salle Provincialate, Petaling Jaya.

5 See, for instance, Angeles, Leonora and Sunanta, Siriji, ‘“Exotic love at your fingertips”: Intermarriage websites, gendered representation, and the transnational migration of Filipino and Thai women’, in Kasarinlan: Philippine Journal of Third World Studies, 22, 1 (2007): 3–31Google Scholar.

6 Kim S. Dertien, ‘Irrevocable ties and forgotten ancestry: The legacy of colonial intermarriage for descendants of mixed ancestry’ (M.A. thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, 2008).

7 van Kirk, Sylvia, ‘From “marrying-in” to “marrying-out”: Changing patterns of Aboriginal/Non-Aboriginal marriage in colonial Canada’, Frontiers, 23, 3 (2002): 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 Stoler, Ann Laura, Carnal knowledge and imperial power: Race and the intimate in colonial rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002)Google Scholar; Hyam, Ronald, Empire and sexuality: The British experience (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1991)Google Scholar.

9 Ah Eng, Lai, Peasants, proletarians and prostitutes: A preliminary investigation into the work of Chinese women in colonial Malaya (Singapore: ISEAS, 1986)Google Scholar; Hui, Tan Beng, ‘Protecting women: Legislation and regulation of women's sexuality in colonial Malaya’, Gender, Technology and Development, 7, 1 (2003): 1–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Warren, James Francis, Rickshaw coolie: A people's history of Singapore (1880–1940) (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1986)Google Scholar.

10 The issue of homosexual relationships in Asian communities in nineteenth-century colonial society has yet to be sufficiently broached in the historical genre. This should be an interesting area but is unfortunately outside the parameters of this study.

11 Abraham, Divide and rule, p. 244.

12 Nagata, Judith, Malaysian mosaic: Perspectives from a poly-ethnic society (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1979), p. 3Google Scholar.

13 Thomas, T.G., ‘Some of our needs’, The Indian, Apr. 1925, pp. 6–7Google Scholar; D'Cruz, M.J., ‘Indian associations and the coolies’, The Indian, Aug. 1925, pp. 94–5Google Scholar.

14 Brass, Paul R., Ethnicity and nationalism: Theory and comparison (New Delhi: Sage, 1991), p. 76Google Scholar.

15 Bishop Edward Garnier, ‘A Report by Bishop Edward Garnier concerning an incident at Sts. Peter and Paul's between Chinese and Indians’, Singapore, 4 Sept. 1885 (trans. from French). One altercation did occur, but it appears to have been an isolated incident and Bishop Garnier does not mention any reactions from either congregation as a result of this event. A Chinese labourer working on the church premises had reportedly hit the young daughter of one of the Tamil cathecists, who retaliated in kind. The cathecist was dismissed. It did not appear that race played a key role in this incident.

16 Qian, Zhenchao and Lichter, Daniel T., ‘Social boundaries and marital assimilation: Interpreting trends in racial and ethnic intermarriage’, American Sociological Review, 72, 1 (2007): 70CrossRefGoogle Scholar, citing Gordon, Milton M., Assimilation in American life: The role of race, religion and national origin (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964)Google Scholar.

17 Van Kirk, ‘From “marrying-in” to “marrying-out”’: 3.

18 Nagata, Judith, ‘Pluralism in Malaysia: Myth and reality’, Contributions to Asian Studies, 7 (1975): 3Google Scholar.

19 Marc Rerceretnam, ‘Black Europeans, the Indian coolies and empire: Colonialisation and Christianized Indians in colonial Malaya and Singapore c. 1870s–c. 1950s’ (Ph.D. diss., University of Sydney, 2003), p. 25.

20 Ibid., pp. 307–11; Chatterjee, Partha, The nation and its fragments: Colonial and postcolonial histories (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 5Google Scholar.

21 Kalmijn, Matthijs and van Tubergen, Frank, ‘Ethnic intermarriage in the Netherlands: Confirmations and refutations of accepted insights’, European Journal of Population, 22, 4 (2006): 375–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22 Kalmijn, Matthijs, ‘Intermarriage and homogamy: Causes, patterns, trends’, Annual Review of Sociology, 24 (1998): 396–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 Meng, Xin and Gregory, Robert G., ‘Intermarriage and the economic assimilation of immigrants’, Journal of Labor Economics, 23, 1 (2005): 166–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

24 Alba, Richard and Nee, Victor, Remaking the American mainstream: Assimilation and contemporary immigration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, cited in Qian and Lichter, ‘Social boundaries and marital assimilation’: 70.

25 Stenson, Class, race and colonialism in West Malaysia, pp. 1–10; Sandhu, K.S., Indians in Malaya: Immigration and settlement 1986–1957 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), p. 147Google Scholar; Rerceretnam, Black Europeans and the Indian Coolies, p. 41.

26 Soong, Kua Kia, ed., Polarisation in Malaysia: The root causes (Kuala Lumpur: K. Das Ink, 1987), pp. 10–12Google Scholar.

27 Ness, Gayle D., Bureaucracy and rural development in Malaysia: A study of complex organizations in stimulating economic development in new states (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), pp. 48–9Google Scholar; Sandhu, Indians in Malaya, p. 58.

28 Loomba, Ania, Colonialism/postcolonialism: A candid discussion with my students (London: Routledge, 1998), pp. 125, 127CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

29 Oldroyd, D.R., Darwinian impacts: An introduction to the Darwinian revolution (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 1980), pp. 212–13Google Scholar.

30 Subramaniam Aiyer, ‘From colonial segregation to postcolonial “integration”: Constructing ethnic difference through Singapore's Little India and the Singapore “Indian”’ (Ph.D. diss., University of Canterbury [New Zealand], 2006), citing Purushotam, Nirmala, ‘Disciplining difference: Race in Singapore’, in Southeast Asian identities: Culture and politics of representation, ed. Kahn, Joel S. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998)Google Scholar.

31 Ibid.

32 Rerceretnam, ‘Black Europeans and the Indian coolies’, p. 18.

33 Eldridge, C.C., The imperial experience: From Carlyle to Forster (London: Macmillan, 1996), p. 142CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

34 Baudet, Henri, Paradise on earth: Some thoughts on European images of non-European man (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), p. 30Google Scholar; Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, The empire strikes back: Race and racism in 70s Britain (London: Hutchinson & Co., 1982), pp. 60–1Google Scholar.

35 Anonymous, Malaysia Message, 17, 2 (November 1907).

36 Headrick, D., The tools of empire: Technology and imperialism in the nineteenth century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), p. 4Google Scholar.

37 Rev. Pakianathan, S.S., ‘The changing Asiatic mind’, Malaysia Mission, 36, 6 (Mar. 1926), p. 3Google Scholar.

38 Metcalf, Thomas, Ideologies of the Raj (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, New Cambridge History of India, vol. 3, pt. 4, 1994), p. 81Google Scholar.

39 Perdue, Peter C., ‘Erasing empire, re-racing the nation: Racialism and culturalism in Imperial China’, in Imperial formations, ed. McGranahan, C., Stoler, A.L. and Perdue, P.C. (Santa Fe: School for Advanced Research Press, 2007), p. 159Google Scholar.

40 Hirschman, Charles, ‘The making of race in colonial Malaya: Political economy and racial ideology’, Sociological Forum, 1, 2 (Spring 1986): 338CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Abraham, Collin, The naked social order: The roots of racial polarisation in Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur: Pelanduk, 2004)Google Scholar; Gungwu, Wang, ‘Continuities in island Southeast Asia’, in Reinventing Malaysia: Reflections on its past and future, ed. Jomo, K.S. (Bangi: Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 2001), pp. 24–5Google Scholar.

41 Wang Gungwu, ‘Continuities in island Southeast Asia’, pp. 24–5.

42 Also known as the Melaka Portuguese or Kristang.

43 K.M. Williams, ‘The church in West Malaysia and Singapore: A study of the Catholic Church in West Malaysia and Singapore regarding her situation as an indigenous church’ (Ph.D. diss., Katholieke Universiteit Te Leuven, 1976), p. 93.

44 Fr. Rene Nicholas (Mission Étrangères de Paris), A Chronology of the Catholic Church in Malaya and Singapore (Singapore: unpublished, 1996), p. 3.

45 Ibid., p. 4.

46 Williams, The Church in West Malaysia and Singapore, p. 104. Ackerman, Susan E. and Lee, Raymond L.M., Heaven in transition: Non-Muslim religious innovation and ethnic identity in Malaysia (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1988), p. 29Google Scholar. O'Brien, Leslie, ‘Education and colonialism: The case of Malaya’, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology, 16, 2 (July 1980): 54CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Similar sentiments with regards to evangelism in schools were expressed by the Anglican Church. Rev. Gnanamani, C.D., Diocesan Magazine [Singapore], 24, 88, Nov. 1932, p. 31Google Scholar.

47 Sng, In his good time, pp. 25, 35. Ackerman and Lee, Heaven in transition, p. 29; Aun, Loh Keng, Fifty years of the Anglican Church in Singapore island 1909–1959 (Singapore: Department of History, University of Singapore, 1963), p. 5Google Scholar.

48 Sng, In his good time, p. 95.

49 Ibid., p. 106.

50 Ibid., pp. 95–6.

51 ‘Tamil Girls Orphanage and Training School, Penang’, Malaysia Message, 15, 3 (Dec. 1905): 30Google Scholar; ‘Application from Roman Catholic Convent, Taiping, for aid towards maintenance of orphans’, 12 Jan. 1900, High Commissioner 636/1900 (trans. from French); Blackmore, Sophia, ‘Miss C. Nind Deaconess Home’, Malaysia Message, 15, 3 (Dec. 1905), pp. 27–9Google Scholar.

52 Tan, Protecting women, p. 5.

53 ‘Application from Roman Catholic Convent, Taiping, for aid towards maintenance of orphans’.

54 Blackmore, ‘Miss C. Nind Deaconess Home’, p. 27.

55 Shen, Hwa Mei, ‘Bound by the covenant to care’, Sunday Star, 18 Aug. 1996, p. 3Google Scholar.

56 ‘Application from Roman Catholic Convent, Taiping, for aid towards maintenance of orphans’; Buchanan, Emily Early, Official minutes of the eighth session of the Malaysia mission conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church held in Singapore, Feb. 17–22, 1900 (Singapore: American Missionary Press, 1900), p. 50Google Scholar.

57 ‘Application from Roman Catholic Convent, Taiping, for aid towards maintenance of orphans’, pp. 1–2.

58 Yap, Dilys, The Convent Light Street: History of a community, a school, and way of life (Georgetown: Dilys Yap, 2001), p. 55Google Scholar.

59 Buchanan, Official minutes, p. 50.

60 Tan, Protecting women, p. 5, citing Colonial Secretary, Minutes, S. S. Legislative Council Meeting, 28 Dec. 1886, Proceedings of the Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements (PLCSS) 1886, B248.

61 Levine, Philippa, Prostitution, race and politics: Policing venereal disease in the British empire (New York: Routledge, 2003), p. 8Google Scholar.

62 Levine, Prostitution, race and politics, p. 182.

63 Rev. Paul, C.S., ‘Ipoh Tamil’, Malaysia Message [Singapore], 10, 9 (June 1901), p. 114Google Scholar. The young woman had gone to the police station, making the request.

64 Tan, Protecting women, p. 5.

65 Ibid., pp. 5–6.

66 Interview, Mr A. Patrick (born 1938), Kuala Lumpur, 16 Oct. 1997.

67 Bean, Philip and Melville, Joy, Lost children of the empire (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989), pp. 112, 121Google Scholar.

68 Ibid., pp. 20–1, 92, 114, 122–4. These examples also include incidents from boys-only orphanages.

69 Ibid., pp. 123–4.

70 ‘Application from Roman Catholic Convent, Taiping, for aid towards maintenance of orphans’, 12 Jan. 1900, High Commissioner for Malay States 636/1900.

71 Hwa, ‘Bound by the covenant’, p. 3. These boarders were separated into first- and second-class boarders.

72 Blackmore, ‘Miss C. Nind Deaconess Home’, p. 27. Second-class boarders paid a monthly sum of $5. The average boarder at St Xavier's paid around $25 to $30 per month (early to mid-1920s), depending on the costs incurred. Cash Book of St. Xavier's Institution Boarding Department 1918–28.

73 ‘Register Bidadari’ (various dates), Singapore, E.C.C. 051, National Archives of Singapore (hereafter NAS). The different children were listed as dying from: bronchitis (1), malaria (2), convulsions (4) and marasmus (malnutrition; lack of protein and carbohydrates) (1).

74 Tan, Nala, ‘Health and welfare’, in A history of Singapore, ed. Chew, E. and Lee, E. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 340, 344Google Scholar.

75 Jones, Colin, The charitable imperative: Hospitals and nursing in ancien régime and revolutionary France (London: Routledge, 1989), p. 67Google Scholar.

76 Williams, ‘The church in West Malaysia and Singapore’, p. 103.

77 ‘Application from Roman Catholic Convent, Taiping, for aid towards maintenance of orphans’, p. 2. The author of the application, Sr Marie, refers to the convent's duty to ‘bring up these children and make good housewives and good Mothers of them’.

78 See Kalmijn, ‘Intermarriage and homogamy’.

79 Van Kirk, ‘From “marrying-in” to “marrying-out”’: 2.

80 Ibid., p. 3.

81 Tan, Protecting women, p. 5.

82 Van Kirk, From “marrying-in” to “marrying-out”, p. 3.

83 ‘Baptism register of the Cathedral of the Good Shepherd, Singapore’, N.A. 033, NAS; Marriage records of the Church of Sts. Peter and Paul (Singapore), N.A. 033, NAS; Interview with Ms Teresa Goh Mui Imm [1913–95], Singapore, May 1988. Such detailed case studies are only available from family sources, as Church archives are presently not accessible or do not contain this much detail. Within certain circles in Singapore and Malaysia, unwillingness to disclose this kind of information makes such accounts extremely rare.

84 ‘Baptism register of the Cathedral of the Good Shepherd, Singapore’, and ‘Marriage records of the Church of Sts. Peter and Paul (Singapore)’, N.A. 033, NAS.

85 Kalmijn and van Tubergen, ‘Ethnic intermarriage in the Netherlands’.

86 Kalmijn, ‘Intermarriage and homogamy’.

87 Aiyer, From colonial segregation to postcolonial ‘integration’, citing Purushotam, ‘Disciplining difference’.

88 Interview, with Mr Robert (b. 1935), Bukit Rotan (Selangor), 19 Oct. 1997.

89 Tan, Protecting women, p. 6; Arasaratnam, Indians in Malaysia & Singapore, p. 69; R.N. Jackson, ‘Pickering: Protector of Chinese (Kuala Lumpur, Oxford University Press, 1965), p. 92.

90 Arasaratnam, Indians in Malaysia & Singapore, p. 67; ‘Indian Labour: XIV: How to increase efficiency’, The Indian Pioneer (Kuala Lumpur), 3, 12 (29 Mar. 1929), p. 2Google Scholar; Straits Settlements Annual Report 1935, Singapore, pp. 802–4; Ferguson-Davie, C.E., In rubber lands: An account of the work of the Church of Malaya (London: Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1921), p. 60Google Scholar; Tan, ‘Health and welfare’, p. 340.

91 Tan, Protecting women, p. 11.

92 The term, ‘convent girl’ used in Roman Catholic Church records, was used to denote if a girl was from the local convent orphanage. See ‘Convent, Register of Births (Assumption Cathedral, Penang): Sept. 1893–Dec. 1894’, ‘Dec. 1894–Aug. 1895’, ‘Aug. 1895–Apr. 1896’, ‘May 1896–Nov. 1896’, ‘Nov. 1896–Sept. 1897’, ‘Aug. 1898–Feb. 1904’; ‘Baptisms, Church of St. Francis Xavier (Penang): Aug. 1890–28 Sept. 1891’, ‘21 Jun. 1897–11 Jul. 1901’, ‘28 Jan. 1912–Oct. 1914’; ‘M, 2.4.1923 to 12.7.1936’ (Marriages), St. Anthony's Church, Brickfields, Kuala Lumpur; ‘Baptisms, Church of Our Lady of Lourdes (Singapore): 14 May 1884–15 Sept. 1895’.

93 Tan, Protecting women, p. 28.

94 Kalmijn, ‘Intermarriage and homogamy’, pp. 396–7.

95 Xin and Gregory, ‘Intermarriage and the economic assimilation’, pp. 166–7; Qian and Lichter, ‘Social boundaries and marital assimilation’: 70.

96 ‘Marriage Register of the Church of Sts. Peter and Paul (Singapore)’; Interview, Teresa Goh Mui Imm (1913–95), Singapore, May 1988.

97 Caplan, Lionel, ‘Caste and castelessness among South Indian Christians’, Contributions to Indian Sociology, 14, 2 (1980): 218–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Policies of the different churches reflected their attitudes to caste practices. Generally, the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches, while not condoning the practice, did not outlaw it. However, many Protestant churches, especially the Methodist, advocated strongly against caste. In Malaya and Singapore, ‘high’ castes, such as the Vellalar, Naidu, Chetty, Mudali, Mudaliyar and Agambadiar caste groups, to an extent were endogamous and probably operated at times as a larger ‘high-caste’ bloc. The slightly lower Odaiyar/Vanniyar groups were accepted into this ‘high-caste’ fold, on the proviso that a suitable educational background, occupational status and the social suitability of the family had been met. A similar dynamic was created with the so-called lower-caste groups such as the Pariah, Pallar, Adi-Dravida, Vallangai and persons of unknown caste groupings. Rerceretnam, ‘Black Europeans and the Indian coolies’, pp. 235–48.

98 Tan, Protecting women, p. 5.

99 Blackmore, ‘Miss C. Nind Deaconess Home’; Yap, Convent Light Street, p. 55.

100 Anderson, Benedict, Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism (London: Verso, 1996), pp. 6–7, 22Google Scholar.

101 Williams, The Church in West Malaysia and Singapore, p. 106.

102 Anderson, Imagined Communities, pp. 44–5. Literary-based regimes already existed within local Methodist Churches, many of which transcend Church-based issues, as early as the late 1890s. Rerceretnam, Marc, ‘Anti-colonialism in Christian churches: A case study of political discourse in the South Indian Methodist Church in Colonial Malaya, 1890s–1930s’, Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, 25, 2 (2010): 234–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

103 Straits Settlements Blue Books, 1918 and 1919. Out of the 11,079 pupils in 1919, 5,576 (1918), or over 50.3 per cent, were attending mission schools.

104 Cooke, D.F., ‘The mission schools of Malaya, 1815–1942’, Paedagogica Historica, 2, 2 (1966): 397Google Scholar.

105 Interview, L.S. Rajoo (b. 1921), Singapore, 21 Nov. 1996; Education Department Circular 8/1938 (Director of Education 370/38), 1 June 1938, file D316; ‘Untitled answers to the Legislative Council by Bro. Lothaire, principal of St. Joseph's Institution [Singapore]’, undated: c. 1880s, file D201, doc. i. De La Salle Provincialate, Petaling Jaya; ‘Untitled letter from Bro. James to the Inspector of Schools [Penang]’, 12 March 1928, p. 2. file B298, De La Salle Provincialate, Petaling Jaya. There is no doubt that the school education system was used as a tool of indoctrination to create support for British colonial hegemony. However, this is outside the realm of this study and will not be discussed here.

106 Interview, Mr Gabriel Lourdes (b. 1925), Singapore, 1 Sept. 1997; Rev. Bethune Cook, J.A., Sunny Singapore: An account of the place & its people, with a sketch of the results of missionary work (London: Eliot Stock, 1907), pp. 134–5Google Scholar. The anti-Roman Catholic tone and mood of Rev. Cook's (Anglican) book illustrate the inherent rivalry between the Churches. However, this attitude seems generally absent in surviving Methodist literature. Caplan, ‘Caste and castelessness among South Indian Christians’: 221.

107 ‘Marriage: St. John's Cathedral (Kuala Lumpur) 6 Apr. 1891–29 Jan. 1906’; ‘Marriages: St. Anthony's Church (Kuala Lumpur) 2 Apr. 1923–28 Jan. 1950’.

108 ‘Baptisms, Church of Our Lady of Lourdes, 14 May 1884–15 Sept. 1895’, Church of Our Lady of Lourdes, Singapore.

109 Loomba, Colonialism/postcolonialism, pp. 125, 127.

110 The captive nature of estate employment as well as the race and caste specificity of estate populations were not conducive to interracial contact.

111 No one Chinese dialect group predominated. ‘Marriage: St. John's Cathedral (Kuala Lumpur) 6 Apr. 1891–29 Jan. 1906’; ‘Marriages: St. Anthony's Church (Kuala Lumpur) 2 Apr. 1923–28 Jan. 1950’.

112 It is highly probably that such intermarriages did exist in Singapore prior to 1937. If they did, they were obviously not officiated under the Church of Our Lady of Lourdes, Singapore. Several cases of Indian–Chinese marriages are documented at St. Anthony's Church (Kuala Lumpur), dating back to the first decade of the twentieth century. These were usually urban liaisons.

113 ‘Marriage: Church of Our Lady of Lourdes, 7 May 1884 –27 Feb. 1922’, ‘4 Sept. 1922–11 Sept. 1956’, ‘9 Jan. 1941–7 Apr. 1947’, ‘9 Jan. 1942–12 Sept. 1942’, Church of Our Lady of Lourdes, Singapore.

114 This can be seen in the practice of muitsai, which involved the buying of Chinese children by Indian families, who were then brought up as part of the family and later married into the family. ‘Chinese children bought by Tamils’, Tamil Murasu (Singapore), 16 Oct. 1952. A correlation could be drawn between the desire for social mobility and Indian/Hindu concepts of varna (colour). By marrying a ‘fairer’ Chinese, the next generation would not be condemned to endure the stigma of a dark complexion.

115 These so-called ‘light’ Eurasians were usually more recent additions to the ‘Eurasian’ communities. Many were descendants of immigrant Anglo-Indian clerks from India who filled the lower ranks of the civil service throughout much of the nineteenth century. Others were the illegitimate offspring of European liaisons with local women.

116 ‘Marriage: Church of Our Lady of Lourdes, 7 May 1884–27 Feb. 1922’, ‘4 Sept. 1922 –11 Sept. 1956’, ‘9 Jan. 1941–7 Apr. 1947’, ‘9 Jan. 1942–12 Sept. 1942’, Church of Our Lady of Lourdes, Singapore.

117 A larger proportion of ‘poor’ estate workers resided in Selangor and Kuala Lumpur. This contributed to the poorer or weaker image of the Indian community among the other urban-based communities. ‘Marriage: St. John's Cathedral (Kuala Lumpur) 6 Apr. 1891–29 Jan. 1906’; ‘Marriages: St. Anthony's Church (Kuala Lumpur) 2 Apr. 1923–28 Jan. 1950’.