Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T04:09:36.132Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Creating modern women: The kitchen in postcolonial Singapore, 1960–90

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 November 2020

Abstract

This article examines the modern kitchen as a technological artefact and a mechanism through which the postcolonial Singaporean state and agents of household consumerism such as advertisers, retailers, home economists, and social scientists constructed the image of a modern Singaporean woman. By revealing how the female consumer-cum-homemaker became a symbol of material success and middle-class status in Fordist Singapore, the article highlights two types of domestication: the subordination of women to the patriarchal imperatives of family and nation, and the transformation of hard successes in the economy into soft comforts in the kitchen. This article suggests that although the state had narrowed the gap between popular expectations for improved living standards and its ability to fulfil them, it also unwittingly enmeshed definitions of femininity, womanhood, and female citizenship in a series of contradictions and tensions that had implications for contemporary Singaporean society.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © The National University of Singapore, 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Kuo, Eddie C.Y. and Wong, Aline K., ‘Some observations on the study of family change in Singapore’, in The contemporary family in Singapore: Structure and change, ed. Kuo, Eddie C.Y. and Wong, Aline K. (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1979), p. 9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 Jones, Steve, Antonio Gramsci (London: Routledge, 2006), pp. 109–10Google Scholar.

3 Garon, Sheldon, ‘The transnational promotion of saving in Asia: “Asian values” or the “Japanese model”?’, in The ambivalent consumer: Questioning consumption in East Asia and the West, ed. Garon, Sheldon and Maclachlan, Patricia L. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006), p. 180Google Scholar. See also the authoritative writings by sociologist Huat, Chua Beng in Life is not complete without shopping: Consumption culture in Singapore (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 2003)Google Scholar.

4 Garon, ‘The transnational promotion of saving in Asia’, p. 36.

5 ‘Speech by BG (NS) George Yeo, Minister for Information and the Arts and Minister for Health, at the launching of Walt Disney Television (Singapore)'s satellite facility’, 26 Mar. 1995, Singapore Government Press Release, National Archives of Singapore (NAS), release no. 29/March, 03B-1/95/03/26, p. 2.

6 Cited from Gordon, Andrew, Fabricating consumers: The sewing machine in modern Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), p. 2Google Scholar.

7 Grazia, Victoria de, Irresistible empire: America's advance through twentieth-century Europe (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2005)Google Scholar.

8 Gordon, Fabricating consumers, p. 6.

9 De Grazia, Irresistible empire, p. 418.

10 Ibid., p. 453.

11 For recent works, see Reid, Susan E., ‘Cold War in the kitchen: Gender and the de-Stalinization of consumer taste in the Soviet Union under Khrushchev’, Slavic Review 61, 2 (2002): 211–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Oldenziel, Ruth and Zachmann, Karin, eds., Cold War kitchen: Americanization, technology, and European users (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009)Google Scholar; Castillo, Greg, Cold War on the home front: The soft power of midcentury design (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010)Google Scholar.

12 De Grazia, Irresistible empire, pp. 454–7.

13 Reid, ‘Cold War in the kitchen’, p. 211.

14 Arnold, David and DeWald, Erich, ‘Everyday technology in South and Southeast Asia: An introduction’, Modern Asian Studies 46, 1 (2012): 12CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Arnold, David, Everyday technology: Machines and the making of India's modernity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Chua, Life is not complete without shopping, p. 24.

16 Reid, ‘Cold War in the kitchen’, p. 228.

17 For the role of the media in creating modern women as consumers, see, for example, Munshi, Shoma, ed., Images of the ‘modern woman’ in Asia: Global media, local meanings (Richmond: Curzon, 2001)Google Scholar; Kim, Youna, ed., Women and the media in Asia: The precarious self (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Smith, Martyn David, Mass media, consumerism, and national identity in postwar Japan (London: Bloomsbury, 2018)Google Scholar.

18 Arnold and DeWald, ‘Everyday technology in South and Southeast Asia’, p. 9.

19 Ruth Oldenziel and Karin Zachmann, ‘Kitchens as technology and politics: An introduction’, in Cold War kitchen, p. 2.

20 Ibid., p. 21.

21 Tim, Ho Chi, ‘Goh Keng Swee in a social welfare history of Singapore’, in Goh Keng Swee: A legacy of public service, ed. Chew, Emrys and Guan, Kwa Chong (Singapore: World Scientific, 2012), p. 51Google Scholar.

22 Swee, Goh Keng, Urban incomes and housing: A report on the social survey of Singapore, 1953–54 (Singapore: Department of Social Welfare, 1956), p. 27Google Scholar.

23 ‘Girls urged to work as hard as the boys’, Straits Times, 27 July 1968, p. 4.

24 Moi, Kho Ee, The construction of femininity in a postcolonial state: Girls’ education in Singapore (Amherst, NY: Cambria, 2013), p. 57Google Scholar.

25 Kho, The construction of femininity in a postcolonial state, p. 13.

26 E.W. Barker, ‘Foreword’, Singapore sample household survey, 1966, Report no. 1, ed. Ministry of National Development, Singapore, and Economic Research Centre, University of Singapore (Singapore: Government Printing Office, 1967), unpaginated.

27 Daroesman, Ruth, Singapore sample household survey, 1966: Report no. 2, Administrative Report (Singapore: Government Printing Office, 1970), pp. 12Google Scholar. For the story of UN experts in Southeast Asia, see Seng, Loh Kah, ‘Emergencities: Experts, squatters, and crisis in post-war Southeast Asia’, Asian Journal of Social Science 44, 6 (2016): 684710Google Scholar.

28 Historian Loh Kah Seng has warned against reading these ‘backward’ settlements in official documents at face value. See ‘Black areas: Urban kampongs and power relations in post-war Singapore historiography’, SOJOURN 22, 1 (2007): 1–29.

29 Kuo and Wong, ‘Some observations on the study of family change in Singapore’, p. 13.

30 Fong, Pang Eng, Education, manpower, and development in Singapore (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1982), p. 7Google Scholar.

31 Ker, Liu Thai, ‘Appraisal’, in Housing a nation: 25 years of public housing in Singapore, ed. Wong, Aline K. and Yeh, Stephen H.K. (Singapore: HDB, 1985), p. 503Google Scholar.

32 Fong, Pang Eng and Pi, Khoo Hsiao, ‘Patterns of industrial employment within public housing estates’, in Public housing in Singapore: A multi-disciplinary study, ed. Yeh, Stephen H.K. (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1975), p. 246Google Scholar.

33 Kong, Lily, Singapore hawker centres: People, places, food (Singapore: National Environment Agency, 2007)Google Scholar.

34 Report on the household expenditure survey, 1972/1973 (Singapore: Department of Statistics, 1974), p. 13.

35 Aline K. Wong, ‘Women's status and changing family values: Implications of maternal employment and educational attainment’, in The contemporary family in Singapore, p. 41.

36 Ibid., p. 40.

37 Report on the household expenditure survey, 1972/1973, p. 14.

38 Yeh, Stephen H.K. and Statistics and Research Department, Housing and Development Board, Homes for the people: A study of tenants’ views on public housing in Singapore (Singapore: Government Printing Office, 1972), pp. 88–9Google Scholar.

39 Pang, Education, manpower, and development in Singapore, p. 8.

40 ‘Talent for the [future]’, Straits Times, 15 Aug. 1983, p. 10.

41 Parliamentary debates (Singapore), ‘Annual budget statement’, Parliament no. 5, session 1, vol. 43, sitting 6, sitting date 12 Mar. 1984, col. 864.

42 Ibid., col. 799.

43 Kho, The construction of femininity, p. 67.

44 Lam, Tong, A passion for facts: Social surveys and the construction of the Chinese nation-state, 1900–1949 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011), p. 25CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

45 Loh, ‘Emergencities’, p. 687.

46 Mitchell, Timothy, Rule of experts: Egypt, techno-politics, modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), p. 43CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

47 ‘The importance of being the good cook at home’, Straits Times, 21 Nov. 1972, p. 19.

48 Loh, ‘Emergencities’, p. 706. For how the concepts of ‘facts’ and ‘experts’ define modernity and governance, see Mitchell, Timothy, ed., Questions of modernity (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000)Google Scholar; Mitchell, Rule of experts; and Lam, A passion for facts.

49 Cited from Kho, The construction of femininity, p. 99.

50 Yeoh, Brenda S.A., Contesting space in colonial Singapore: Power relations and the urban built environment (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1995), p. 144Google Scholar.

51 Yeh, Homes for the people, pp. 88–9.

52 Yang, Tan Kok, From the blue windows: Recollections of life in Queenstown, Singapore, in the 1960s and 1970s (Singapore: NUS Press, 2013), pp. 36–7Google Scholar.

53 Hoong, Sin Chih, ‘Segregation and marginalization within public housing: The disadvantaged in Bedok New Town, Singapore’, Housing Studies 17, 2 (2002): 287Google Scholar.

54 Tarulevicz, Nicole, Eating her curries and kway: A cultural history of food in Singapore (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2013), pp. 63–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

55 Sand, Jordan, House and home in modern Japan: Architecture, domestic space, and bourgeois culture, 1880–1930 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2003), p. 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

56 Chua Beng Huat, Communitarian ideology and democracy in Singapore (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 89.

57 ‘Speech by Dr. Ow Chin Hock, Parliamentary Secretary (Culture) and MP for Leng Kee, at the First Speech & Prize-Giving Day at Mei Chin Secondary School on 29/8/78 at 4.30pm in the school hall’, Singapore Government Press Release, NAS, File no. MC/AUG/64/78(Culture).

58 ‘Speech by Mr. Ong Pang Boon, Minister for the Environment, at the “Residents Get-Together Party” for the residents of Hong Lim Complex on Friday, 29 April ’83 at 7.30pm’, Singapore Government Press Release, NAS, File no. 07-1/83/04/29.

59 ‘The family as an agent of change’, New Nation, 21 Apr. 1979, p. 14.

60 Sand, House and home in modern Japan, p. 5.

61 Parliamentary debates (Singapore), ‘Creche Establishments Bill’, Parliament no. 3, session 1, vol. 32, sitting 11, sitting date 7 Mar. 1973, col. 541.

62 ‘Speech by Mr. Ho Kah Leong, Parliamentary Secretary (Education), at the Paya Lebar Methodist Girl's School Founder's Day Thanksgiving and Graduation Service on Thursday, 14 October 1982 at 9.30am’, Singapore Government Press Release, NAS, File no. 06-4/82/10/14.

63 ‘Address by Dr. Ahmad Mattar, Acting Minister for Social Affairs and Chairman, Vocational and Industrial Training Board, at the inaugural meeting of the fourth term of office of the Hotel Trade Advisory Committee at the Hotel and Catering Training School on Tuesday, 6 November 79 at 1300 hours’, Singapore Government Press Release, NAS, File no. MC/NOV/17/79 (Social Affairs).

64 ‘Take the drudgery out of cooking with the right tools’, Straits Times, 24 Sept. 1970, p. 20.

65 ‘Cook a meal in 15 seconds’, Straits Times, 7 May 1970, p. 14.

66 K. Karuna, Asian cooking: The conventional and microwave style (Singapore: Heinemann Asia, 1991), p. 1.

67 ‘The switch to microwave ovens and cookbooks’, Straits Times, 18 Nov. 1989, p. 1.

68 ‘Household chores now easier’, New Nation, 26 Sept. 1972, p. 16.

69 See, for example, Rajah, Jothie, Authoritarian rule of law: Legislation, discourse, and legitimacy in Singapore (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), pp. 117–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

70 ‘Getting the kitchen better organised’, New Nation, 30 Mar. 1976, p. 14.

71 ‘Labour saving appliances make life simple for the career woman’, Straits Times, 4 Mar. 1979, p. 30.

72 ‘Rice cooker makes life easy’, New Nation, 26 Sept. 1972, p. 13.

73 In HDB units, the bathroom opens directly to the kitchen so that cooking and laundering may be done together. Wet elements are kept to a corner of the kitchen. See Liu Thai Ker, ‘Design for better living conditions’, in Public housing in Singapore, p. 137.

74 ‘Setting up a new home’, Straits Times, 4 May 1980, p. 16. HDB dwellers can hang their laundry to dry on thick bamboo poles extended from the windows — a uniquely Singaporean experience.

75 Tan, From the blue windows, p. 36.

76 ‘The important role of the freezer’, New Nation, 30 Apr. 1973, p. 19.

77 Ibid.

78 ‘Labour saving appliances make life simple for the career woman’, p. 30.

79 ‘Take the hard work out of washing clothes — at a price to suit your budget’, Straits Times, 1 Apr. 1979, p. 12.

80 ‘Labour saving appliances make life simple for the career woman’, p. 30.

81 ‘Cook a meal in 15 seconds’, p. 14.

82 ‘When a home is not merely a house’, Straits Times, 21 Sept. 1979, p. 5.

83 ‘Chores can be fun with use of appliances’, Straits Times, 11 Jan. 1976, p. 24.

84 ‘Right equipment can make baking pleasure’, Straits Times, 1 Apr. 1979, p. 10.

85 ‘Modern cookers save time and fuel — a boon to housewives’, Straits Times, 4 Mar. 1979, p. 27.

86 ‘Decorations to suit any tastes’, New Nation, 12 Oct. 1976, p. 14.

87 ‘Décor: Do it yourself and live in style’, New Nation, 28 Feb. 1973, p. 13.

88 ‘Interior decoration course at CC’, Straits Times, 9 May 1986, p. 28.

89 ‘Get expert help for renovation’, New Nation, 29 Nov. 1980, p. 18.

90 ‘Industrial art’, Straits Times, 25 Mar. 1982, p. 7.

91 ‘Contest for best renovated and prettiest homes’, Straits Times, 18 Jan. 1985, p. 2.

92 ‘Speech by Prime Minister at the launch of demonstration phase of the upgrading programme at the car park next to Blk. 61, Marine Drive, on Friday, 6 March 1992 at 8.00pm’, Singapore Government Press Release, NAS, file no. 02-1/92/03/06.

93 Report on the household expenditure survey, 1972/1973, pp. 8–9.

94 Stephen H.K. Yeh, ‘Summary and discussion’, in Public housing in Singapore, p. 335.

95 Huat, Chua Beng, Liberalism disavowed: Communitarianism and state capitalism in Singapore (Singapore: NUS Press, 2017), p. 62Google Scholar.

96 Pang, Education, manpower, and development in Singapore, p. 5. Working citizens and their employers deposit a fixed proportion of wages and can withdraw funds from their CPF accounts to buy HDB apartments or pay monthly mortgage installments. See Low, Linda and Aw, T.C., Housing a healthy, educated, and wealthy nation through the CPF (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1997)Google Scholar.

97 Garon, ‘The transnational promotion of saving in Asia’, p. 177.

98 ‘Govt may raise CPF interest’, Straits Times, 28 Apr. 1974, p. 1.

99 Garon, ‘The transnational promotion of saving in Asia’, p. 179.

100 Ibid., p. 180.

101 Limited, Courts Asia, Courts Singapore: Celebrating 40 years of turning houses into homes (Singapore: Courts Asia, 2014), p. 8Google Scholar.

102 Susan Strasser, Never done: A history of American housework (New York: Pantheon, 1982), p. 7.

103 Ibid., p. 9.

104 ‘It's boom time for home devices’, Singapore Monitor, 21 Oct. 1984, p. 1.

105 ‘Govt may raise CPF interest’, p. 1.

106 ‘Speech by Mr. Ho Kah Leong’, Singapore Government Press Release, NAS, File No. 06-4/82/10/14.

107 ‘The quiet revolution that's going on in the modern home’, Straits Times, 20 Nov. 1977, p. 6.

108 ‘Nothing to beat a good amah’, New Nation, 5 Mar. 1971, p. 11.

109 Ibid.

110 ‘Soap opera in a Queenstown kitchen’, Straits Times, 28 Nov. 1982, p. 16.

111 ‘Your amah: An angel or witch?’ Straits Times, 18 Apr. 1971, p. 16.

112 ‘Cute, confident, conceited, and hard as nails’, Straits Times, 9 Aug. 1980, p. 11.

113 ‘New family role for Asian men’, New Nation, 9 Dec. 1971, p. 13.

114 Ibid.

115 ‘The secret ingredient to successful cooking’, Straits Times, 26 Aug. 1980, p. 6.

116 ‘The thoroughly modern S'pore woman’, Straits Times, 19 Dec. 1978, p. 6.

117 ‘Cute, confident, conceited, and hard as nails’, p. 11.

118 Ibid.

119 ‘Her world’, Singapore Monitor, 10 Mar. 1985, p. 1.

120 ‘Self, career, and family’, Straits Times, 5 July 1989, p. 22.

121 Williams, Lindy, ‘W(h)ither state interest in intimacy? Singapore through a comparative lens’, SOJOURN 29, 1 (2014): 144–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For the various pronatalist and socially conservative policies, see Saw Swee Hock, The population of Singapore, third edition (Singapore: ISEAS, 2012), pp. 211–22.

122 ‘Self, career, and family’, p. 22.

123 ‘Birth trend spells trouble, says Lee’, Business Times, 15 Aug. 1983, p. 1.

124 ‘Keeping close family ties’, Straits Times, 10 Feb. 1989, p. 18.

125 ‘What made Singapore succeed — PM Lee’, Straits Times, 8 Jan. 1987, p. 11.

126 Lam, A passion for facts, p. 8.

127 Sand, House and home in modern Japan, pp. 1–2.

128 Ibid., p. 5.

129 ‘The rugged society’, Straits Times, 9 Aug. 1971, p. 25.

130 Arnold and DeWald, ‘Everyday technology in South and Southeast Asia’, p. 7.

131 Ibid., p. 9.

132 Mitchell, Questions of modernity, p. xxv.

133 This was different from the situation on both sides of the Iron Curtain, where consumption was gendered as a ‘feminine’ issue in efforts by Western states to ‘negotiate its relations with the people over the crucial territory of living standards’. See Reid, ‘Cold War in the kitchen’, p. 252.