Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-04T21:52:20.319Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Predictors of client retention in a state-based tobacco quitline

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 March 2020

Uma S. Nair Open the ORCID record for Uma S. Nair [Opens in a new window] ,
Brooke Rabe ,
Benjamin R. Brady Open the ORCID record for Benjamin R. Brady [Opens in a new window]  and
Melanie L. Bell
Uma S. Nair*
Affiliation:
Department of Family and Community Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, 655 N. Alvernon Way, Suite 228, TucsonAZ-85711, USA
Brooke Rabe
Affiliation:
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, 1295 N. Martin Avenue, Drachman Hall, Tucson, AZ-85724, USA
Benjamin R. Brady
Affiliation:
Health Promotion Sciences, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, 1295 N. Martin Avenue, Drachman Hall, Tucson, AZ-85724, USA
Melanie L. Bell
Affiliation:
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, 1295 N. Martin Avenue, Drachman Hall, Tucson, AZ-85724, USA
*
Author for correspondence: Uma S. Nair, E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Introduction

Quitlines are standard care for smoking cessation; however, retaining clients in services is a problem. Little is known about factors that may predict dropout.

Aims

To examine predictors of retention while in-program and at follow-up for clients enrolling in a state quitline.

Methods

This was a retrospective analysis of quitline enrolled clients from 2011 to 2017 (N = 49,347). Client retention in-program was categorized as (a) low adherence to treatment (receiving zero coaching calls), moderate (1–2 calls), and high adherence (3+ calls). Dropout at follow-up included participants who were not reached for the 7-month follow-up.

Results

More than half the sample dropped out during treatment; 61% were not reached for follow-up. Women (odds ratio (OR) = 1.21; 95% confidence interval (CI) = [1.16, 127]) and those with high levels of nicotine dependence (OR = 1.03; 95% CI = [1.02, 1.04]) were more likely to have moderate adherence to treatment (1–2 coaching calls). Dropout at follow-up was more likely among clients who used nicotine replacement therapy (OR = 1.14; 95% CI = [1.09, 1.19]) and less likely among those who had high treatment adherence (OR = 0.41; 95% CI = [0.39, 0.42]).

Conclusion

Given the relapsing nature of tobacco use and the harms related to tobacco use, quitlines can improve their impact by offering tailored services to enhance client engagement and retention in-treatment and at follow-up.

Keywords

Retentiontobacco quitlines
Type
Original Articles
Information
Journal of Smoking Cessation , Volume 15 , Issue 2 , June 2020 , pp. 67 - 75
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abshire, M., Dinglas, V. D., Cajita, M. I. A., Eakin, M. N., Needham, D. M., & Himmelfarb, C. D. (2017). Participant retention practices in longitudinal clinical research studies with high retention rates. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 17(1), 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12874-017-0310-Z.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
al'Absi, M., Nakajima, M., Allen, S., Lemieux, A., & Hatsukami, D. (2015). Sex differences in hormonal responses to stress and smoking relapse: A prospective examination. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 17(4), 382–389. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntu340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, S. S., Allen, A. M., Lunos, S., & Tosun, N. (2016). Progesterone and postpartum smoking relapse: A pilot double-blind placebo-controlled randomized trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 18(11), 2145–2153. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntw156.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, A. M., Yuan, N. P., Wertheim, B. C., Krupski, L., Bell, M. L., & Nair, U. (2019). Gender differences in utilization of services and tobacco cessation outcomes at a state quitline. Translational Behavioral Medicine, 9(4), 663–668. https://doi.org/10.1093/tbm/iby083.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anthenelli, R. M., Benowitz, N. L., West, R., St Aubin, L., McRae, T., Lawrence, D., … Evins, A. E. (2016). Neuropsychiatric safety and efficacy of varenicline, bupropion, and nicotine patch in smokers with and without psychiatric disorders (EAGLES): A double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled clinical trial. The Lancet, 387(10037), 2507–2520. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30272-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bahadir, A., Iliaz, S., Yurt, S., Ortakoylu, M. G., Bakan, N. D., & Yazar, E. (2016a). Factors affecting dropout in the smoking cessation outpatient clinic. Chronic Respiratory Disease, 13(2), 155–161. https://doi.org/10.1177/1479972316629953.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belita, E., & Sidani, S. (2015). Attrition in smoking cessation intervention studies: A systematic review. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research Archive, 47(4). 21-40. Retrieved from http://cjnr.archive.mcgill.ca/article/view/2 499.Google ScholarPubMed
Bonevski, B., Randell, M., Paul, C., Chapman, K., Twyman, L., Bryant, J., … Hughes, C. (2014). Reaching the hard-to-reach: A systematic review of strategies for improving health and medical research with socially disadvantaged groups. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 14(1), 42. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-14-42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borrelli, B., Hogan, J. W., Bock, B., Pinto, B., Roberts, M., & Marcus, B. (2002). Predictors of quitting and dropout among women in a clinic-based smoking cessation program. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16(1), 22–27. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11934082.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burns, E. K., Levinson, A. H., & Deaton, E. A. (2012). Factors in nonadherence to quitline services: Smoker characteristics explain little. Health Education & Behavior, 39(5), 596–602. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198111425186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, H. S., Baskerville, N. B., Hayward, L. M., Brown, K. S., & Ossip, D. J. (2014). The reach ratio – a new indicator for comparing quitline reach into smoking subgroups. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 16(4), 491–495. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntt192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christakis, N. A., & Fowler, J. H. (2008). The collective dynamics of smoking in a large social network. New England Journal of Medicine, 358(21), 2249–2258. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa0706154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christensen, H., Griffiths, K. M., & Farrer, L. (2009). Adherence in internet interventions for anxiety and depression. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.1194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, M. M., Hurt, R. D., Croghan, I. T., Patten, C. A., Novotny, P., Sloan, J. A., … Loprinzi, C. L. (2006). The prevalence of weight concerns in a smoking abstinence clinical trial. Addictive Behaviors, 31(7), 1144–1152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.08.011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Courtney, R. J., Clare, P., Boland, V., Martire, K. A., Bonevski, B., Hall, W., … Mattick, R. P. (2017). Predictors of retention in a randomised trial of smoking cessation in low-socioeconomic status Australian smokers. Addictive Behaviors, 64, 13–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ADDBEH.2016.07.019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummings, K. M., Fix, B., Celestino, P., Carlin-Menter, S., O'Connor, R., & Hyland, A. (2006.). Reach, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness of free nicotine medication giveaway programs. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice: JPHMP, 12(1), 37–43. Retrieved April 3, 2019, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16340514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummins, S. E., Bailey, L., Campbell, S., Koon-Kirby, C., & Zhu, S. H. (2007). Tobacco cessation quitlines in North America: A descriptive study. Tobacco Control, 16 (Suppl 1), 9–15. https://doi.org/10.1136/tc.2007.020370.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curtin, L., Brown, R. A., & Sales, S. D. (2000). Determinants of attrition from cessation treatment in smokers with a history of major depressive disorder. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 14(2), 134–142. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10860112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickerson, F., Schroeder, J., Katsafanas, E., Khushalani, S., Origoni, A. E., Savage, C., … Yolken, R. H. (2018). Cigarette smoking by patients with serious mental illness, 1999–2016: An increasing disparity. Psychiatric Services, 69(2), 147–153. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201700118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickerson, F., Stallings, C. R., Origoni, A. E., Vaughan, C., Khushalani, S., Schroeder, J., & Yolken, R. H. (2013). Cigarette smoking among persons with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder in routine clinical settings, 1999–2011. Psychiatric Services, 64(1), 44–50. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201200143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dohnke, B., Weiss-Gerlach, E., & Spies, C. D. (2011). Social influences on the motivation to quit smoking: Main and moderating effects of social norms. Addictive Behaviors, 36(4), 286–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ADDBEH.2010.11.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Khorazaty, M. N., Johnson, A. A., Kiely, M., El-Mohandes, A. A., Subramanian, S., Laryea, H. A., … Joseph, J. G. (2007). Recruitment and retention of low-income minority women in a behavioral intervention to reduce smoking, depression, and intimate partner violence during pregnancy. BMC Public Health, 7(1), 233. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-7-233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ennett, S. T., Bauman, K. E., Hussong, A., Faris, R., Foshee, V. A., Cai, L., & DuRant, R. H. (2006). The peer context of adolescent substance use: Findings from social network analysis. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16(2), 159–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00127.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiore, M. C., Jaén, C. R., Baker, T. B., Bailey, W. C., Benowitz, N. L., Curry, S. J., … Wewers, M. E. (2008). A clinical practice guideline for treating tobacco use and dependence: 2008 update. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 35(May), 158–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2008.04.009.Google Scholar
Hartmann-Boyce, J., Chepkin, S. C., Ye, W., Bullen, C., & Lancaster, T. (2018). Nicotine replacement therapy versus control for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 31(5), CD000146. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD000146.pub5.Google Scholar
Heatherton, T. F., Kozlowski, L. T., Frecker, R. C., & Fagerstrom, K. O. (1991). The Fagerstrom test for nicotine dependence: A revision of the Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire. British Journal of Addiction, 86(9), 1119–1127. https://doi.org/doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1991.tb01879.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hollis, J. F., McAfee, T. A., Fellows, J. L., Zbikowski, S. M., Stark, M., & Riedlinger, K. (2007). The effectiveness and cost effectiveness of telephone counselling and the nicotine patch in a state tobacco quitline. Tobacco Control, 16 (Suppl 1), i53–i59. https://doi.org/10.1136/tc.2006.019794.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
International Agency for Research on Cancer. (2008). General mediators and moderators of tobacco use behaviours. In IARC Handbooks of cancer prevention: Methods for evaluating tobacco control policies (12th ed., pp. 107–122). World Health Organization. Retrieved from http://www.iarc.fr/en/publications/pdfs-online/prev/handbook12/Tobacco_vol12.pdf. Lyons, FranceGoogle Scholar
Jacquart, J., Papini, S., Davis, M. L., Rosenfield, D., Powers, M. B., Frierson, G. M., … Smits, J. A. J. (2017). Identifying attendance patterns in a smoking cessation treatment and their relationships with quit success. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 174, 65–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.01.007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kleinjan, M., van den Eijnden, R. J. J. M., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2009). Adolescents’ rationalizations to continue smoking: The role of disengagement beliefs and nicotine dependence in smoking cessation. Addictive Behaviors, 34(5), 440–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.12.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leak, C., Goggins, K., Schildcrout, J. S., Theobald, C., Donato, K. M., Bell, S. P., … & Vanderbilt Inpatient Cohort Study. (2015). Effect of health literacy on research follow-up. Journal of Health Communication, 20 (Suppl 2), 83–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2015.1058442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LeBeau, R. T., Davies, C. D., Culver, N. C., & Craske, M. G. (2013). Homework compliance counts in cognitive-behavioral therapy. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 42(3), 171–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2013.763286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lent, A. B., O'Connor, P. A., Reikowsky, R. C., Nair, U. S., & Bell, M. L. (2018). Quit outcomes among clients ineligible for cessation medication through the state quitline: A retrospective, observational study. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 1001. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5923-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leon, A. C., Demirtas, H., & Hedeker, D. (2007). Bias reduction with an adjustment for participants’ intent to dropout of a randomized controlled clinical trial. Clinical Trials, 4(5), 540–547. https://doi.org/10.1177/1740774507083871.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lichtenstein, E., Zhu, S.-H., & Tedeschi, G. J. (2010). Smoking cessation quitlines: An underrecognized intervention success story. The American Psychologist, 65(4), 252–261. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindberg, A., Niska, B., Stridsman, C., Eklund, B.-M., Eriksson, B., & Hedman, L. (2015). Low nicotine dependence and high self-efficacy can predict smoking cessation independent of the presence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A three year follow up of a population-based study. Tobacco Induced Diseases, 13(1), 27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12971-015-0055-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
López-Torrecillas, F., Nieto-Ruiz, A., Velasco-Ortuño, S., Lara-Fernández, M., López-Quirantes, E. M., & Castillo-Fernández, E. (2014). The role of impulsivity in dropout from treatment for cigarette smoking. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 55(7), 1609–1613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.06.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Macleod, Z. R., Charles, M. A., Arnaldi, V. C., & Adams, I. M. (2003). Telephone counselling as an adjunct to nicotine patches in smoking cessation: A randomised controlled trial. The Medical Journal of Australia, 179(7), 349–352. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14503897.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mathew, A. R., Burris, J. L., Alberg, A. J., Cummings, K. M., & Carpenter, M. J. (2015). Impact of a brief telephone referral on quitline use, quit attempts and abstinence. Health Education Research, 30(1), 134–139. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyu041.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClave, A. K., McKnight-Eily, L. R., Davis, S. P., & Dube, S. R. (2010). Smoking characteristics of adults with selected lifetime mental illnesses: Results from the 2007 national health interview survey. American Journal of Public Health, 100(12), 2464–2472. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.188136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDermott, M. S., Marteau, T. M., Hollands, G. J., Hankins, M., & Aveyard, P. (2013). Change in anxiety following successful and unsuccessful attempts at smoking cessation: Cohort study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 202(01), 62–67. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.112.114389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McFall, M., Saxon, A. J., Malte, C. A., Chow, B., Bailey, S., Baker, D. G., … Lavori, P. W. (2010). Integrating tobacco cessation into mental health care for posttraumatic stress disorder a randomized controlled trial. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 304(22), 2485–2493. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2010.1769.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Melville, K. M., Casey, L. M., & Kavanagh, D. J. (2010). Dropout from internet-based treatment for psychological disorders. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 49(4), 455–471. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466509X472138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mintz, L. B., & Betz, N. E. (1988). Prevalence and correlates of eating disordered behaviors among undergraduate women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35(4), 463–471. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.35.4.463.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, C. D., Burns, E. K., Waxmonsky, J. A., & Levinson, A. H. (2014). Smoking cessation behaviors among persons with psychiatric diagnoses: Results from a population-level state survey. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 136, 63–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.12.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nair, U. S., & Allen, A. M. (2019). Menstrual Cycle and Smoking Cessation at a State Quitline. Clinical Trials.Gov.Google Scholar
Nair, U. S., Bell, M. L., Yuan, N. P., Wertheim, B. C., & Thomson, C. A. (2018). Associations between comorbid health conditions and quit outcomes among smokers enrolled in a state quitline, Arizona, 2011–2016. Public Health Reports, 133(2), 200–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033354918764903.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nair, U. S., Reikowsky, R. C., Wertheim, B. C., Thomson, C. A., & Gordon, J. S. (2018). Quit outcomes and program utilization by mode of entry among clients enrolling in a quitline. American Journal of Health Promotion, 32(7), 1510–1517. https://doi.org/10.1177/0890117117749366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
North American Quitline Consortium. (2015). Calculating Quit Rates, 2015 Update. Retrieved from https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.naquitline.org/resource/resmgr/Issue_Papers/WhitePaper2015QRUpdate.pdf.Google Scholar
North American Quitline Consortium. (2018). Results from the NAQC annual survey of quitlines, FY17. Retrieved from https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.naquitline.org/resource/resmgr/research/FULLSLIDESFY17.pdf.Google Scholar
Perkins, K. A. (2001). Smoking cessation in women. CNS Drugs, 15(5), 391–411. https://doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200115050-00005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piper, M. E., Smith, S. S., Schlam, T. R., Fleming, M. F., Bittrich, A. A., Brown, J. L., … Baker, T. B. (2010). Psychiatric disorders in smokers seeking treatment for tobacco dependence: Relations with tobacco dependence and cessation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018065.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prinz, R. J., Smith, E. P., Dumas, J. E., Laughlin, J. E., White, D. W., & Barrón, R. (2001). Recruitment and retention of participants in prevention trials involving family-based interventions. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 20 (Suppl 1), 31–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(00)00271-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prochaska, J. J. (2010). Failure to treat tobacco use in mental health and addiction treatment settings: A form of harm reduction? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 110(3), 177–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.03.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prochaska, J. J. (2011). Smoking and mental illness – breaking the link. The New England Journal of Medicine, 365(3), 196–198. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1105248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramos-Gomez, F., Chung, L. H., Gonzalez Beristain, R., Santo, W., Jue, B., Weintraub, J., & Gansky, S. (2008). Recruiting and retaining pregnant women from a community health center at the US–Mexico border for the Mothers and Youth Access clinical trial. Clinical Trials, 5(4), 336–346. https://doi.org/10.1177/1740774508093980.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, K. A., Dennison, C. R., Wayman, D. M., Pronovost, P. J., & Needham, D. M. (2007). Systematic review identifies number of strategies important for retaining study participants. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 60(8), 757–765. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2006.11.023.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwindt, R., Hudmon, K. S., Knisely, M., Davis, L., & Pike, C. (2017). Impact of tobacco quitlines on smoking cessation in persons with mental illness: A systematic review. Journal of Drug Education, 47(1–2), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047237918762104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scott Acton, G, Prochaska, G., Kaplan, J. J., Small, A. S., & Hall, T., & M, S. (2001). Depression and stages of change for smoking in psychiatric outpatients. Addictive Behaviors, 26(5), 621–631. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4603(01)00178-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shiffman, S., & Paton, S. (1999). Individual differences in smoking: Gender and nicotine addiction. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 1(1), 153–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/14622299050011991.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Søgaard, A. J., Selmer, R., Bjertness, E., & Thelle, D. (2004). The Oslo Health Study: The impact of self-selection in a large, population-based survey. International Journal for Equity in Health, 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-9276-3-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanton, C. A., Keith, D. R., Gaalema, D. E., Bunn, J. Y., Doogan, N. J., Redner, R., … Higgins, S. T. (2016). Trends in tobacco use among US adults with chronic health conditions: National Survey on Drug Use and Health 2005–2013. Preventive Medicine, 92, 160–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.04.008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stapleton, J. A., Russell, M. A., Feyerabend, C., Wiseman, S. M., Gustavsson, G., Sawe, U., & Wiseman, D. (1995). Dose effects and predictors of outcome in a randomized trial of transdermal nicotine patches in general practice. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 90(1), 31–42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7888977.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stead, L. F., Hartmann-Boyce, J., Perera, R., & Lancaster, T. (2013). Telephone counselling for smoking cessation. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 8, CD002850. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD002850.pub3.Google Scholar
Szklo, M., & Nieto, F. J. (2014). Epidemiology: Beyond the basics. Jones & Bartlett Learning, Sudbury, MA.Google Scholar
Tinkelman, D., Wilson, S. M., Willett, J., & Sweeney, C. T. (2007). Offering free NRT through a tobacco quitline: Impact on utilisation and quit rates. Tobacco Control, 16 (Suppl 1), i42–6. https://doi.org/10.1136/tc.2007.019919.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
US Department of Health and Human Services. (2014). The Health Consequences of Smoking – 50 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General. Retrieved from http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/reports/50-years-of-progress/#fullreport.Google Scholar
van Buuren, S. (2007). Multiple imputation of discrete and continuous data by fully conditional specification. Statistical Methods in Medical Research, 16(3), 219–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0962280206074463.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vangeli, E., Stapleton, J., Smit, E. S., Borland, R., & West, R. (2011). Predictors of attempts to stop smoking and their success in adult general population samples: A systematic review. Addiction, 106(12), 2110–2121. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03565.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vickerman, K. A., Schauer, G. L., Malarcher, A. M., Zhang, L., Mowery, P., & Nash, C. M. (2015). Quitline use and outcomes among callers with and without mental health conditions: A 7-month follow-up evaluation in three states. BioMed Research International, 1. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/817298.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, M. A., McKee, S. A., & O'Malley, S. S. (2007). Smoke and mirrors: Magnified beliefs that cigarette smoking suppresses weight. Addictive Behaviors, 32(10), 2200–2210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.02.011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhu, S.-H., Anderson, C. M., Zhuang, Y.-L., Gamst, A. C., & Kohatsu, N. D. (2017). Smoking prevalence in Medicaid has been declining at a negligible rate. PLoS ONE, 12(5), e0178279. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhu, S.-H., Lee, M., Zhuang, Y.-L., Gamst, A., & Wolfson, T. (2012). Interventions to increase smoking cessation at the population level: How much progress has been made in the last two decades? Tobacco Control, 21(2), 110–118. https://doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhuang, Y.-L., Gamst, A. C., Cummins, S. E., Wolfson, T., & Zhu, S.-H. (2015). Comparison of smoking cessation between education groups: Findings from 2 US national surveys over 2 decades. American Journal of Public Health, 105(2), 373–379. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed