Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T19:01:55.310Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Freedman's Story: an Accusation of Witchcraft in the Social World of Early Imperial Roman Italy (CIL 11.4639 = ILS 3001)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 July 2018

Duncan E. Macrae
Duncan E. Macrae*
Affiliation:
University of California, Berkeley
*
[email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article proposes a new reading of a late first-century c.e. inscribed dedication from Todi (Umbria) as an accusation of witchcraft, a rhetorical text aimed at propagating a particular story among the local community. Historical and anthropological studies of witchcraft accusations in other societies have emphasised how they can reveal tensions and anxieties that are normally not visible to the observer. By drawing on these studies and close examination of the language and content of the inscription, this article analyses an historical agent's experience of the social structure of early imperial Italy. The accusation is read as a freedman's response to his ambiguous position in a slave society, the ambivalent power of writing in Roman culture and the religious claims of Flavian imperial discourse.

Keywords

Latin epigraphywitchcraft accusationsslaveryliteracyRoman religionfreedmenTodi
Type
Articles
Information
The Journal of Roman Studies , Volume 108 , November 2018 , pp. 53 - 73
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2018. Published by The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY

RIC II.12 = I. A. Carradice and T. V. Buttrey, The Roman Imperial Coinage, Vol. 2, pt. 1: From AD 69–96, Vespasian to Domitian, London, 2007.Google Scholar
Abbreviations for epigraphical collections follow L'Année épigraphique.Google Scholar
Abramenko, A. 1993: Die munizipale Mittelschicht im kaiserzeitlichen Italien: zu einem neuen Verständnis von Sevirat und Augustalität, Frankfurt am Main.Google Scholar
Abusch, I. T. 2002: Mesopotamian Witchcraft: Toward a History and Understanding of Babylonian Witchcraft Beliefs and Literature, Leiden.Google Scholar
Abusch, I. T. 2015: The Witchcraft Series Maqlû, Atlanta.Google Scholar
Ando, C. 2000: Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Aru, L. 1941: ‘Breve note sulla “manumissio vindicta”’, in Studi di storia e diritto in onore di Arrigo Solmi, Milan, vol. 2, 301–24.Google Scholar
Audollent, A. M. H. 1904: Defixionum Tabellae Quotquot Innotuerunt Tam in Graecis Orientis Quam in Totius Occidentis Partibus Praeter Atticas in Corpore Inscriptionum Atticarum Editas, Paris.Google Scholar
Bastian, M. L. 1993: ‘“Bloodhounds who have no friends”: witchcraft and locality in the Nigerian popular press’, in Comaroff, J. and Comaroff, J. L. (eds), Modernity and its Malcontents: Ritual and Power in Postcolonial Africa, Chicago, 129–66.Google Scholar
Bazzana, G. B. 2015: Kingdom of Bureaucracy: The Political Theology of Village Scribes in the Sayings Gospel Q, Leuven.Google Scholar
Beard, M. 1991: ‘Writing religion: ancient literacy and the function of the written word in Roman religion’, in Humphrey 1991, 35–58.Google Scholar
Beard, M. 1998: ‘Vita Inscripta’, in Ehlers, W. (ed.), La Biographie antique, Vandoeuvres, 83–118.Google Scholar
Beard, M., North, J. A., and Price, S. R. F. 1998: Religions of Rome (2 vols), Cambridge.Google Scholar
Becatti, G. 1938: Tuder-Carsulae, Rome.Google Scholar
Bendlin, A. 2006: ‘Nicht der Eine, nicht die Vielen: zur Pragmatik religiösen Verhaltens in einer polytheistischen Gesellschaft am Beispiel Roms’, in Kratz, R. G. and Spieckermann, H. (eds), Götterbilder-Gottesbilder-Weltbilder. Polytheismus und Monotheismus in der Welt der Antike, Vol. 2, Tübingen, 279–311.Google Scholar
Bergamini, M. 1996: ‘La civica raccolta archeologica di Todi. Formazione e vicendè’, in Casale, V., Coarelli, F. and Toscano, B. (eds), Scritti di archeologia e storia dell'arte in onore di Carlo Pietrangeli, Rome, 189–200.Google Scholar
Bergamini Simoni, M. 2001: Todi: antica città degli Umbri, Assisi.Google Scholar
Blänsdorf, J. 2005: ‘The curse tablets from the sanctuary of Isis and Magna Mater in Mainz’, MHNH: Revista Internacional de Investigación sobre Magia y Astrología Antiguas 5, 11–26.Google Scholar
Blänsdorf, J. 2010: ‘The texts from the Fons Annae Perennae’, in Gordon and Marco Simón 2010, 215–44.Google Scholar
Bodel, J., and Kajava, M. (eds) 2009: Dediche sacre nel mondo greco-romano: diffusione, funzioni, tipologie = Religious Dedications in the Greco-Roman World: Distribution, Typology, Use, Rome.Google Scholar
Boyer, P. S., and Nissenbaum, S. 1974: Salem Possessed: The Social Origins of Witchcraft, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Bradley, K. 1987: Slaves and Masters in the Roman Empire: A Study in Social Control, New York.Google Scholar
Bradley, K. 1990: ‘Servus onerosus: Roman law and the troublesome slave’, Slavery & Abolition 11, 135–58.Google Scholar
Brown, P. R. L. 1970: ‘Sorcery, demons and the rise of Christianity: from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages’, in Douglas, M. (ed.), Witchcraft: Confessions and Accusations, London, 17–45.Google Scholar
Bruun, C. 2008: ‘La familia publica di Ostia Antica’, in Epigrafia 2006: Atti della XIVe rencontre sur l’épigraphie in onore di Silvio Panciera, Rome, 537–56.Google Scholar
Bryen, A. Z. 2013: Violence in Roman Egypt: A Study in Legal Interpretation, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Buonocuore, M. 2009: ‘La res sacra nell'Italia centro-appenninica fra tarda repubblica ed impero’, in Bodel and Kajava 2009, 245–305.Google Scholar
Cébeillac-Gervasoni, M. (ed.) 2000: Les Élites municipales de l'Italie péninsulaire de la mort de César à la mort de Domitien entre continuité et rupture: classes sociales dirigeantes et pouvoir central, Rome.Google Scholar
Comaroff, J., and Comaroff, J. L. 1999: ‘Occult economies and the violence of abstraction: notes from the South African Postcolony’, American Ethnologist 26, 279–303.Google Scholar
Cooley, A. 2000: ‘Politics and religion in the Ager Laurens’, in Cooley, A. (ed.), The Epigraphic Landscape of Roman Italy, Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies Supp. 73, London, 173–91.Google Scholar
Cooley, A. 2012: The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Cooley, A. (ed.) 2016: A Companion to Roman Italy, Malden, MA.Google Scholar
Crawley Quinn, J., and Wilson, A. 2013: ‘Capitolia’, Journal of Roman Studies 103, 117–73.Google Scholar
Damon, C. 1999: ‘The trial of Cn. Piso in Tacitus’ Annals and the “Senatus Consultum de Cn. Pisone Patre”: new light on narrative technique’, American Journal of Philology 120, 143–62.Google Scholar
D'Arms, J. H. 1972: ‘CIL X, 1792: a municipal notable of the Augustan age’, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 76, 207–16.Google Scholar
D'Arms, J. H. 1974: ‘Puteoli in the second century of the Roman Empire: a social and economic study’, Journal of Roman Studies 64, 104–24.Google Scholar
D'Arms, J. H. 2000: ‘Memory, money, and status at Misenum: three new inscriptions from the Collegium of the Augustales’, Journal of Roman Studies 90, 126–44.Google Scholar
Dickie, M. 2001: Magic and Magicians in the Greco-Roman World, London.Google Scholar
Duthoy, R. 1978: ‘Les Augustales’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16.2, 1254–309.Google Scholar
Dyson, S. L. 1992: Community and Society in Roman Italy, Baltimore.Google Scholar
Eidinow, E. 2010: ‘Patterns of persecution: “witchcraft” trials in Classical Athens’, Past & Present 208, 9–35.Google Scholar
Evans-Pritchard, E. E. 1937: Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande, Oxford.Google Scholar
Faraone, C. A., and Kropp, A. 2010: ‘Inversion, adversion and perversion as strategies in Latin curse-tablets’, in Gordon and Marco Simón 2010, 381–98.Google Scholar
Fear, A. T. 1998: Review: ‘The Blázquez Festschrift’, Classical Review 48, 123–5.Google Scholar
Fears, J. R. 1981: ‘The cult of Jupiter and Roman imperial ideology’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.17.1, 3–141.Google Scholar
Forni, G. 1984: ‘Il manuscritto con epigrafi di Gian Battista Guazzaroni (Biblioteca Augusta di Perugia, cod. misc. 404 F 78)’, Epigraphica 46, 117–39.Google Scholar
Franklin, J. L. Jr. 1991: ‘Literacy and the parietal inscriptions of Pompeii’, in Humphrey 1991, 77–98.Google Scholar
Fulford, M. 1994: ‘The monumental and the mundane: a common epigraphic tradition’, Britannia 25, 315–18.Google Scholar
Fülle, G. 1997: ‘The internal organization of the Arretine terra sigillata industry: problems of evidence and interpretation’, Journal of Roman Studies 87, 111–55.Google Scholar
Gager, J. G. 1992: Curse Tablets and Binding Spells from the Ancient World, New York.Google Scholar
Gallia, A. B. 2012: Remembering the Roman Republic: Culture, Politics and History under the Principate, New York.Google Scholar
Gamauf, R. 2007: ‘Cum aliter nulla domus tuta esse possit … fear of slaves and Roman law’, in Fear of Slaves – Fear of Enslavement in the Ancient Mediterranean (Discourse, Representations, Practices), Rethymnon, 4–7 November 2004, Besançon, 145–64.Google Scholar
Gaskill, M. 2008: ‘The pursuit of reality: recent research into the history of witchcraft’, Historical Journal 51, 1069–88.Google Scholar
Geschiere, P. 1997: The Modernity of Witchcraft: Politics and the Occult in Postcolonial Africa, Charlottesville.Google Scholar
Geschiere, P. 2003: ‘Witchcraft as the dark side of kinship: dilemmas of social security in new contexts’, Etnofoor 16, 43–61.Google Scholar
Geschiere, P. 2013: Witchcraft, Intimacy, and Trust: Africa in Comparison, Chicago.Google Scholar
Geschiere, P. 2016: ‘Witchcraft, shamanism, and nostalgia: a review essay’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 58, 242–65.Google Scholar
Giardina, A. 1997: ‘Le due Italie nella forma tarda dell'Impero’, in Giardina, A., L'Italia romana: Storie di un'identità incompiuta, Rome, 265–321.Google Scholar
Giardina, A. 2000: ‘Conclusioni’, in Cébeillac-Gervasoni 2000, 463–71.Google Scholar
Gordon, R., Beard, M., Reynolds, J., and Roueché, C. 1993: ‘Roman Inscriptions 1986–90’, Journal of Roman Studies 83, 131–58.Google Scholar
Gordon, R., and Marco Simón, F. 2010: ‘Introduction’, in Gordon and Marco Simón 2010, 1–49.Google Scholar
Gordon, R., and Marco Simón, F. (eds) 2010: Magical Practice in the Latin West: Papers from the International Conference held at the University of Zaragoza, 30 Sept.–1 Oct. 2005, Leiden.Google Scholar
Graf, F. 1992: ‘An oracle against pestilence from a Western Anatolian town’, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 92, 267–79.Google Scholar
Graf, F. 1997: Magic in the Ancient World, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Graf, F. 2007: ‘Untimely death, witchcraft, and divine vengeance. A reasoned epigraphical catalogue’, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 162, 139–50.Google Scholar
Halkin, L. 1897: Les Esclaves publics chez les romaines, Bruxelles.Google Scholar
Harries, J. 2013: ‘The Senatus Consultum Silanianum: court decisions and judicial severity in the early Roman Empire’, in Plessis, P. Du (ed.), New Frontiers: Law and Society in the Roman World, Edinburgh, 51–70.Google Scholar
Hauken, T. 1998: Petition and Response: An Epigraphic Study of Petitions to Roman Emperors, 181–249, Bergen.Google Scholar
Hill, P. V. 1960: ‘Aspects of Jupiter on coins of the Rome mint, AD 65–318’, Numismatic Chronicle 20, 113–28.Google Scholar
Hopkins, K. 1993: ‘Novel evidence for Roman slavery’, Past & Present 138, 3–27.Google Scholar
Horsfall, N. 1989: ‘“The uses of literacy” and the “Cena Trimalchionis”: II’, Greece & Rome 36, 194–209.Google Scholar
Horsfall, N. 1991: ‘Statistics or states of mind?’, in Humphrey 1991, 59–76.Google Scholar
Humphrey, J. H. (ed.) 1991: Literacy in the Roman World, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Hutton, R. 2004: ‘Anthropological and historical approaches to witchcraft: potential for a new collaboration?’, The Historical Journal 47, 413–34.Google Scholar
Joshel, S. R. 2011: ‘Slavery and Roman literary culture’, in Bradley, K. and Cartledge, P. (eds), The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Vol. 1: The Ancient Mediterranean World, Cambridge, 214–40.Google Scholar
Kelly, B. 2011: Petitions, Litigation, and Social Control in Roman Egypt, Oxford.Google Scholar
Kropp, A. 2008: Magische Sprachverwendung in vulgärlateinischen Fluchtafeln (Defixiones), Tübingen.Google Scholar
Kropp, A. 2010: ‘How does magical language work? The spells and formulae of the Latin defixionum tabellae’, in Gordon and Marco Simón 2010, 357–80.Google Scholar
Kruschwitz, P. 2010: ‘Attitudes towards wall inscriptions in the Roman Empire’, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 174, 207–18.Google Scholar
Kruschwitz, P. 2016: ‘Inhabiting a lettered world: exploring the fringes of Roman writing habits’, Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 59, 26–41.Google Scholar
Laird, M. L. 2015: Civic Monuments and the Augustales in Roman Italy, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Lévy-Bruhl, H. 1936: ‘L'affranchissement par la vindicte’, in Studi in onore di Salvatore Riccobono nel XL anno del suo insegnamento, Vol. 3, Palermo, 2–19.Google Scholar
Luck, G. 2006: Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Collection of Ancient Texts (2nd edn), Baltimore.Google Scholar
Macfarlane, A. 1970: Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England: a Regional and Comparative Study, New York.Google Scholar
MacMullen, R. 1982: ‘The epigraphic habit in the Roman Empire’, American Journal of Philology 103, 233–46.Google Scholar
Manacorda, D. 1993: ‘Appunti sulla bollatura in età romana’, in Harris, W. V. (ed.), The Inscribed Economy: Production and Distribution in the Roman Empire in the Light of Instrumentum Domesticum, Ann Arbor, 37–54.Google Scholar
Manders, E. 2012: Coining Images of Power: Patterns in the Representation of Roman Emperors on Imperial Coinage, A.D. 193–284, Leiden.Google Scholar
Marco Simón, F. 2010: ‘Execrating the Roman power: three defixiones from Emporiae (Ampurías)’, in Gordon and Marco Simón 2010, 399–423.Google Scholar
Marwick, M. G. 1963: ‘The sociology of sorcery in a Central African tribe’, African Studies 22, 1–21.Google Scholar
McCarthy, K. 2000: Slaves, Masters, and the Art of Authority in Plautine Comedy, Princeton.Google Scholar
McGing, B. C. 1998: ‘Bandits, real and imagined, in Greco-Roman Egypt’, Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists 35, 159–83.Google Scholar
McKeown, N. 2012: ‘Magic, religion, and the Roman slave: resistance, control and community’, in Hodkinson, S. and Geary, D. (eds), Slaves and Religions in Graeco-Roman Antiquity and Modern Brazil, Newcastle upon Tyne, 279–308.Google Scholar
Meyer, E. 1990: ‘Explaining the epigraphic habit in the Roman Empire: the evidence of epitaphs’, Journal of Roman Studies 80, 74–96.Google Scholar
Meyer, E. 2004: Legitimacy and Law in the Roman World: Tabulae in Roman Belief and Practice, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Millar, F. 1986a: ‘A new approach to the Roman jurists’, Journal of Roman Studies 76, 272–80.Google Scholar
Millar, F. 1986b: ‘Italy and the Roman Empire: Augustus to Constantine’, Phoenix 40, 295–318.Google Scholar
Morley, N. 1996: Metropolis and Hinterland: The City of Rome and the Italian Economy, 200 B.C.–A.D. 200, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Mouritsen, H. 2005: ‘Freedmen and decurions: epitaphs and social history in imperial Italy’, Journal of Roman Studies 95, 38–63.Google Scholar
Mrozek, S. 1971: ‘Primus Omnium sur les inscriptions des municipes Italiens’, Epigraphica 33, 60–9.Google Scholar
Nelis-Clément, J., and Nelis, D. 2005: ‘Petronius’ epigraphic habit’, Dictynna. Revue de Poétique Latine 2, https://dictynna.revues.org/137.Google Scholar
Noreña, C. F. 2011: Imperial Ideals in the Roman West: Representation, Circulation, Power, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Norton, M. B. 2002: In the Devil's Snare: The Salem Witchcraft Crisis of 1692, New York.Google Scholar
Ogden, D. 1999: ‘Binding spells: curse tablets and voodoo dolls in the Greco-Roman worlds’, in Ankarloo, B. and Clark, S. (eds), Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome, Philadelphia, 1–90.Google Scholar
Ogden, D. 2009: Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Sourcebook (2nd edn), Oxford.Google Scholar
Ostrow, S. E. 1985: ‘“Augustales” along the Bay of Naples: a case for their early growth’, Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 34, 64–101.Google Scholar
Oxé, A., Comfort, H., and Kenrick, P. M. 2000: Corpus Vasorum Arretinorum: A Catalogue of the Signatures, Shapes and Chronology of Italian Sigillata (2nd edn), Bonn.Google Scholar
Padilla Peralta, D. 2017: ‘Slave religiosity in the Roman Middle Republic’, Classical Antiquity 36, 317–69.Google Scholar
Patterson, J. R. 2006: Landscapes and Cities: Rural Settlement and Civic Transformation in Early Imperial Italy, Oxford.Google Scholar
Petersen, L. H. 2006: The Freedman in Roman Art and Art History, New York.Google Scholar
Petrovszky, R. 1993: Studien zu römischen Bronzegefässen mit Meisterstempeln, Buch am Erlbach.Google Scholar
Pettinger, A. 2012: The Republic in Danger: Drusus Libo and the Succession of Tiberius, Oxford.Google Scholar
Pina Polo, F. 2011: The Consul at Rome: The Civil Functions of the Consuls in the Roman Republic, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Purcell, N. 1995: ‘Literate games: Roman urban society and the game of alea’, Past & Present 147, 3–37.Google Scholar
Purcell, N. 1998: ‘Alla scoperta di una costa residenziale romana: il litus Laurentinum e l'archeologia dell’otium’, in Lauro, M. G. (ed.), Castelporziano III: campagne di scavo e restauro 1987–1991, Rome, 11–32.Google Scholar
Purcell, N. 2000: ‘Rome and Italy’, in The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 11 (2nd edn), Cambridge, 405–43.Google Scholar
Ramsby, T. 2012: ‘“Reading” the freed slave in the Cena Trimalchionis’, in Bell, S. and Ramsby, T. (eds), Free at Last! The Impact of Freed Slaves on the Roman Empire, London, 66–87.Google Scholar
Richardson, J. H. 2014: ‘“Firsts” and the historians of Rome’, Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 63, 17–37.Google Scholar
Richlin, A. 2014: ‘Talking to slaves in the Plautine audience’, Classical Antiquity 33, 174–226.Google Scholar
Roper, L. 2004: Witch Craze: Terror and Fantasy in Baroque Germany, New Haven, CT.Google Scholar
Rostovtzeff, M. I. 1957: The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire (2nd edn), Oxford.Google Scholar
Rowlands, A. 2016: ‘Gender, ungodly parents and a witch family in seventeenth-century Germany’, Past & Present 232, 45–86.Google Scholar
Rüpke, J. 2009: ‘Dedications accompanied by inscriptions in the Roman Empire: functions, intentions, modes of communication’, in Bodel and Kajava 2009, 31–41.Google Scholar
Rüpke, J. 2016: On Roman Religion: Lived Religion and the Individual in Ancient Rome, London.Google Scholar
Salway, B. 2000: ‘Prefects, patroni, and decurions: a new perspective on the album of Canusium’, in Cooley, A. (ed.), The Epigraphic Landscape of Roman Italy, Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies Supp. 73, London, 115–71.Google Scholar
Sanders, G. 1989: ‘Sauver le nom de l'oubli: le témoignage des CLE d'Afrique et aliunde’, in L'Africa Romana. Atti del VI convegno di studio. Sassari 16–8 dicembre 1988, Sassari, 43–79.Google Scholar
Scarfì, B. M. 1972: ‘Una tabella defixionis da Altino (Venezia)’, Epigraphica 34, 55–68.Google Scholar
Scheid, J. 1999: ‘Hiérarchie et structure dans le polythéisme romain: façons de penser l'action’, Archiv für Religionsgeschichte 1, 184–203.Google Scholar
Schmidt, R. H., Kunter, M., Nuber, H. U., and Simon, H.-G. 1996: Römerzeitliche Gräber aus Südhessen, Wiesbaden.Google Scholar
Schwemer, D. 2015: ‘The ancient Near East’, in Collins, D. J. (ed.), The Cambridge History of Magic and Witchcraft in the West: From Antiquity to Present, Cambridge, 17–51.Google Scholar
Scott, K. 1936: The Imperial Cult under the Flavians, Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Serrano Delgado, J. M. 1996: ‘Sceleratissimus seruus publicus: un episodio de la vida municipal afectando a la familia publica’, in Mangas, J. and Alvar, J. (eds), Homenaje a José María Blázquez III: Historia de Roma, Madrid, 331–44.Google Scholar
Sherwood Fox, W. 1912: The Johns Hopkins Tabellae Defixionum, Baltimore.Google Scholar
Stewart, R. 2012: Plautus and Roman Slavery, Malden, MA.Google Scholar
Thomas, K. 1971: Religion and the Decline of Magic: Studies in Popular Beliefs in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century England, London.Google Scholar
Thomsen, M.-L. 2001: ‘Witchcraft and magic in ancient Mesopotamia’, in Ankarloo, B. and Clark, S. (eds), Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Biblical and Pagan Societies, Philadelphia, 1–95.Google Scholar
Tomlin, R. 1988: ‘The curse tablets’, in Cunliffe, B. (ed.), The Temple of Sulis Minerva at Bath, Oxford, 59–277.Google Scholar
Toutain, J. 1907: Les Cultes païens dans l'empire romain, Vol. 1, Paris.Google Scholar
Vandevoorde, L. 2013: ‘Respectability on display. Alba and Fasti of the *Augustales in the context of collegial and magisterial hierarchy’, Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire 91, 127–52.Google Scholar
Van Haeperen, F. 2015: ‘Origine et fonctions des Augustales (12 av. n.è.–37): nouvelles hypothèses’, L'Antiquité Classique 85, 127–55.Google Scholar
Versnel, H. S. 1991: ‘Beyond cursing: the appeal to justice in judicial prayers’, in Faraone, C. and Obbink, D. (eds), Magika Hiera: Ancient Greek Magic and Religon, Oxford, 60–106.Google Scholar
Wallace-Hadrill, A. 2008: Rome's Cultural Revolution, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Walser, G. 1955: ‘Der Kaiser als Vindex Libertatis’, Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 4, 353–67.Google Scholar
Watson, A. 1987: Roman Slave Law, Baltimore.Google Scholar
Weiss, A. 2004: Sklave der Stadt. Untersuchungen zur öffentlichen Sklaverei in den Städten des römischen Reiches, Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Weiss, P. 2016: ‘Eine tabella defixionis, die spanischen Vibii Paciaeci und Crassus’, Chiron 46, 223–63.Google Scholar
Wilburn, A. 2012: Materia Magica: The Archaeology of Magic in Roman Egypt, Cyprus, and Spain, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Wilson, D. R., and Wright, R. P. 1969: ‘Roman Britain in 1968: I. Sites explored: II. Inscriptions’, Journal of Roman Studies 59, 198–246.Google Scholar
Witcher, R. 2006: ‘Settlement and society in early imperial Etruria’, Journal of Roman Studies 96, 88–123.Google Scholar
Wolf, J. G. 1991: ‘Die manumissio vindicta und der Freiheitsprozeß: ein Rekonstruktionsversuch’, in Libertas: Grundrechtliche und rechtsstaatliche Gewährungen in Antike und Gegenwart, Symposion aus Anlass des 80. Geburtstages von Franz Wieacker, Ebelsbach, 61–96.Google Scholar
Woodward, A., and Leach, P. 1993: The Uley Shrines: Excavation of a Ritual Complex on West Hill, Uley, Gloucestershire, 1977–9, London.Google Scholar
Woolf, G. 1996: ‘Monumental writing and the expansion of Roman society in the early Empire’, Journal of Roman Studies 86, 22–39.Google Scholar
Woolf, G. 2009: ‘Literacy or literacies in Rome?’, in Johnson, W. A. and Parker, H. N. (eds), Ancient Literacies: The Culture of Reading in Greece and Rome, Oxford, 46–68.Google Scholar