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Between Man and God: Sacrifice in the Roman Imperial Cult*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 September 2012

S. R. F. Price
S. R. F. Price
Affiliation:
Christ's College, Cambridge
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Extract

Because men addressed him as Augustus in view of his claim to honour they revere him with temples and sacrifices over all the islands and continents, in cities and tribes requiting him for the magnitude of his virtue and his benefactions towards them.

This passage from a biography of Augustus by a contemporary writer, Nicolaus of Damascus, gives a rare picture of the way in which the emperor was honoured in his lifetime throughout the provinces of the empire. The temples and sacrifices to which it refers formed part of a nexus of cultic honours, classified by the Greeks as isotheoi timai, honours equivalent to those given to the gods, which also included priests, festivals and games. This form of royal ritual stretched back in the Greek lands three hundred years to the time of Alexander the Great and beyond and constitutes a fundamental aspect of the relationship between subject and ruler in the ancient world.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Roman Studies , Volume 70 , November 1980 , pp. 28 - 43
Copyright
Copyright © S. R. F. Price 1980. Exclusive Licence to Publish: The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies

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References

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26 Dio LVIII, 8, 4 (cf. ibid., 7, 2; 11, 2); LIX, 4, 4 (cf. ibid., 26, 10); LX, 5, 4.

27 IGR IV, 1398 (Smyrna).

28 SEG XI, 923 with M. I. Rostovtzeff, ‘L'Empereur Tibère et le culte impérial’, Rev. hist. 163 (1930), 1. Also S. Eitrem, Symb. Oslo. 10 (1932), 43–8.

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30 L 6: ὺπὲρ τῆς τῶν ὴγεμóνων σωτηρία[ς]..

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34 SEG II, 717–18.

35 IG XII (2), 484 = IGR IV, 116.

36 IGR IV, 371: προ[θ]ύσας … τῶν θείων εἰκόνων.

37 BCH 24 (1900), 386 no. 41. Cf. Robert, REA 62 (1960), 324 n. 4 = Op. Min. Sel. II, 840 n. 4.

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39 As Casabona shows.

40 L. Robert, Arch. Ephemeris 1969, 49–58.

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42 J. H. Oliver, ‘Roman Emperors and Athenian Ephebes’, Hist. 26 (1977), 89; IGR IV, 947 with Robert, BCH 57 (1933), 518 ff. = Op. Min. Sel. I, 486 ff. Cf. also Le Bas-Waddington 1620c (Aphrodisias) and pp. 31, 39.

43 Syll. 3 797 = IGR IV, 251 = I. Assos 26; IG VII, 2711 = ILS 8792 (Acraephiae); Pfister, RE Supp. IV, 310; Chalon, G., L' édit de Tiberius Julius Alexander (1964), 97–9Google Scholar.

44 MAMA VIII, 424.

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48 F. Delphes III (4), 307; I. Didyma 254. IGR IV, 1542 = I. Erythroe 60.

49 E. Peterson, ‘Die Einholung des Kyrios’, Zeit. für syst. Theol. 7 (1930), 682; S. MacCormack, ‘Change and Continuity in Late Antiquity: The Ceremony of Adventus’, Hist. 21 (1972), 721.

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52 IG XII Supp. 124. Cf. Robert, BE 1979, no. 320.

53 IGR IV, 1756 = Sardis VII (1), 8, 6–31. Cf. Ath. Mitt. 75 (1960), 70, no. 1 (Samos).

54 J. M. Reynolds, PBSR 30 (1962), 33–6; 33 (1965). 52–4; Mârghitan, L., Petolescu, C. C., JRS 66 (1976), 84–6Google Scholar. Note also Ael. Arist., Or. L, 26 (with a suggested reading by Behr, C. A., Aelius Aristides and the Sacred Tales (1968), 63Google Scholar n. 14, 104, 283 n. 79).

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57 John Lydius, de Mens. IV, 10; Maspero, J., Papyrus grecs d'époque byzantine I, 67057,Google Scholar 32. S. Karwiese, RE Supp. XII, 247 curiously refers the term to the temple. For relations between Ephesus and Macrinus see J. Keil, SB Bay. Ak. Munchen 1956 (3) ( = SEG XVII, 505).

58 IGR IV, 1615 (Philadelphia); BCH 10 (1886), 420 no. 28 (Selendi); SEG XXIII, 208 (Messene); nn. 15, 131.

59 Jacobi, F., Πάντεϛ θεοί (Diss. Halle 1930)Google Scholar; K. Ziegler, RE XVIII. 3, 697 s.v. Pantheion.

60 BCH II (1887), 306 (Cys).

61 Forsch. in Eph. II no. 20 = Hesp. Supp. VI, no. 12.

62 IBM 892, 28–32 (Halicarnassus, Augustus and Gaius (?) Caesar); TAM II, 549 with Robert, J. Savants 1978, 35–48 (Tlos, Livia); below pp. 35.

63 IGR IV, 1608 (Sebastoi theoi, restored); JÖAI 23 (1926), Beib. 263–4 = SEG IV, 521 = AE 1928, 94 (Ephesus, Asclepius and Sebastoi); Syll. 3 820 (Ephesus, Demeter and divine Sebastoi); BCH 9 (1885), 336 no. 19 = L. and J. Robert, La Carie II (1954), 170 no. 58 (Heraclea Salbace, ancestral gods and Sebastoi); A. Maiuri, Nuova silloge, no. 462 (Cos, Sebastoi and other gods); IG VII, 2712 with J. H. Oliver, GRBS 12 (1971), 225–36 (Acraephiae, Sebastoi, alone or with gods); n. 41.

64 SEG xv, 330 (Acraephiae).

65 A. S. Benjamin, A. E. Raubitschek, ‘Arae Augusti’, Hesp. 28 (1959), 65; A. S. Benjamin, ‘The Altars of Hadrian in Athens and Hadrian's Panhellenic Program’, Hesp. 32 (1963), 57; M. LeGlay, ‘Hadrien et l'Asklépieion de Pergame’, BCH 100 (1976), 347, esp. 350–64.

66 SEG xxv, 680. For subtleties in dedications see Veyne, P., ‘Les honneurs posthumes de Flavia Domitilla et les dédicaces grecques et latines’, Latomus 21 (1962), 49Google Scholar.

67 I. Olympia 56 with ZPE 15 (1974), 192–3. Cf. REG 17 (1904), 212–13 = AE 1904, 224 with Robert, Rev. Phil. 1 (1927), 128 = Op. Min. Sel. II, 1083 (Cerynia).

68 R. M. Geer, TAPA 66 (1935), 208–21.

69 Note the immolatio Caesari at Cumae, ILS 108 = Inscr. It. XIII (2), 44.

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71 SEG VII, 825 = I. Gerasa 192 tells against this assumption.

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73 cf. Habicht 172–9.

74 Dittenberger, ad loc.; Chantraine, P., Dict, étym. de la langue Grecque (1968), 390Google Scholar; LSJ Supp. (1968); Frisk, H., Griechisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch III (1972), 97Google Scholar.

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78 Krause, RE Supp. v, 246 claims that this is merely an echo of Moschus II, 84 ff., but the context, the rape of Europa, does not encourage this.

79 Stengel, P., Opferbräuche der Griechen (1910), 9–12Google Scholar; Casabona, op. cit. (n. 38), 85–94.

80 De abstinentia II, 24 (Budé) = Pötscher, W., Theophrastos Περὶ Εὐσϵβϵίαϛ (1964)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, fr. 12, lines 42–4. On sources see also Forster, E., Die antiken Ansichten über das Opferwesen (Diss. Innsbruck, 1952)Google Scholar. Cf. also Iamblichus, de myst. v, 5 ff.

81 IGR IV, 292, 17 (Pergamum); IGR IV, 566 (Aezani).

82 e.g. Homer, Od. III, 178–9; Pol. v, 14, 8; Diod. Sic. xx, 76; Heliod., Aeth. v, 12–15.

83 See ILS 112 where a vow was made to the numen of Augustus on behalf of Augustus.

84 Schürer, E., The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (rev. ed. Vennes, G., Millar, F.), I, 486,Google Scholar II, 360–2.

85 Schürer II, 362 n. 83. Cf. Biehl, L., ‘Das liturgische Gebet für Kaiser und Reich’, Veröff. der Görres-Gesellschaft, Rechts- und Staatswiss. Abt. 75 (1937)Google Scholar.

86 F. Millar, ‘The Imperial Cult and the Persecutions’, Ent. Hardt XIX (1973) (n. 7), 145. The objection of Hopkins, K., Conquerors and Slaves (1978), 227Google Scholar n. 37 misunderstands Millar's point that the divinity of the emperor was rarely invoked. The texts of the martyr acts are in Knopf, Krüger, Ruhbach, Ausgewählte Martyr-Akten 4 (1965) and, less reliably, Musurillo, H., Acts of the Christian Martyrs (1972)Google Scholar.

87 Acta Pionii 8; Eus., MP I, I. The other cases are Eus., MP I, 54, Syriac and Eus., HE VII, 15.

88 Pliny, Ep. x, 96, 5–6.

89 Habicht 213–21.

90 Hyp., Epit. col. VIII with Bickerman, E., ‘Sur un passage d'Hypéride’, Athen. 41 (1963), 70Google Scholar.

91 Arr., Anab. VII, 23, 2; Plut., Dem. II.

92 Athen. VI, 253b ff. (FGH 76 F 13).

93 Reft, in Habicht 138–9. Add Sytt. 3 390 (Nesiotai); F. Durrbach, Choix d'inscriptions de Délos 21 (Delos); SEG I, 366 (Samos); F. Delphes III (4), 357 and Hesp. Supp. XVII (1978), lines 55–64 and pp. 33–5 (Athens) for cult of Ptolemy I at Alexandria; P. Oxy. 2465 for Arsinoe (below n. 94); Chiron 5 (1975), 59 (near Denizli); IG XII Supp. 122 (Eresus); Antiochus III at Teos (below n. 96) and Iasos, (Annuario 45–6 (1967–1968), 445 no. 2Google Scholar with esp. BE 1971, no. 621; OGIS 305; IGR IV, 293b, 7–9 and 294, 19–20, 39, 47–8 (Pergamum, with downdating of Jones, C. P., Chiron 4 (1974), 183Google Scholar ff); I. Cos 35 (Nicomedes I ?); Pol. XVIII, 16, I (Attalus, Sicyon).

94 Robert, L., ‘Sur un decret d'Ilion et sur un papyrus concernant des cultes royaux’, Studies … C. B. Welles (1966), 175Google Scholar.

95 SEG xxv, 141 (Athens); SEG IX, 5 (Cyrene). However Plut., Arist. 19, 8 and Syll. 3 398, 20 show, against Kirchner ad IG II2, 2086, that such sacrifices could be retrospective rather than petitionary.

96 Anadolu 9 (1965), 29Google Scholar ff. (with BE 1969, no. 495–6) esp. II, 0–63.

97 Hesp. 17 (1948), 112 ff. (with BE 1949, no. 51) = SEG xxv, 141 (c. 305); The Athenian Agora (1974), XV, 108 no. III (c. 240) and 109 no. 115 (235/4); IG II2, 1291 (mid-third century). Cf. Habicht 44–8 and 189–90.

98 Agora xv, 97 no. 89(254/3); IG 112, 780 = Syll 3 466 (c. 246/5); SEG XVIII, 19 (244/3); IG II2, 776 (240); Agora xv, 107 no. 110 (c. 243–37); Agora xv, 112 no. 119 (230s).

99 Livy XXXI, 44, 4–8.

100 JÖAI 35 (1943), 160 with BE 1948, no. 47 = SEG xxv, 149.

101 OGIS 222 = I. Prime 507 = I. Erythrae 504.

102 SEG IX, 5 (cf. XIII, 616, XVI, 865).

103 Syll. 3 671–2 = F. Delphes III (3), 238–9 = Sokolowski, LSCG, 80 and Supp. 44. Cf. G. Daux, REG 48 (1935), 53–61 and Nilsson, above n. 23.

104 Syll. 3 611 = Sherk 38 (cf. F. Delphes III (I), 152; SGDI 2680); IG VII, 413 = Sherk 23, 47 ff.

105 I. Delos 1498 (161/0); 1499 (153/2); SEG XXI, 469 = Sokolowski LSCG Supp. 14, 57 (Athens, 129/8); LSCG Supp. 121 (Ephesus, third-century A.D. copy of ancestral law).

106 IG II2, 1330 with Robert, Et. épigr. 38 ff. and Hell, XI–XII, 121–2, 129.

107 OGIS 332. Cf. A. D. Nock, HSCP 41 (1930), 23 = Essays I, 219–20 and Versnel, H. S., Lampas 7 (1974), 148–50Google Scholar.

108 OGIS 219 = I. Ilion 32 (c. 280–60); IG XII (8), 156 = Syll. 3 502 = Fraser, P. M., in Samothrace (ed. Lehmann, K.) II. I, pp. 39–40Google Scholar (c. 240–30 ?); SEG XII, 375 with Habicht 122–3 (242, Ainos); OGIS 55 = TAM II, I (c. 240, Telmessus); Annuario 39–40 (1961–2), 578 with Robert, Op. Min. Sel. III, 1503 and BE 1973, no. 439 (190s, Iasos); I. Labraunda I, 6 A (220s); PdP 27 (1972), 182 (180s, Cos); I. Magnesia 86, 15–17 and IG XII Supp. 250 with Robert, Hell, XI–XII, 116 ff (Andros, before 160/59); OGIS 315 v = Welles, RC 59 (Pessinus, 163–59); SEG XVIII, 727 (Cyrene, between 140 and 116); OGIS 332 (Pergamum, 138–33).

109 e.g. Ath. Mitt. 72 (1957), 242 no. 65.

110 There are possible exceptions. The refusal of divine honours by Alexander (Hist. Alex. Magni, ed. W. Kroll, I, 22, 12, p. 97, 24 ff.) is presumably a retrojection from imperial practice, but the refusal by Agesilaus of Sparta (Plut., Apoph. Lac. Ages. 25 = Mor. 210D), though it is rejected by Habicht 179–84, occurs in a context which is not obviously contaminated.

111 Cic., ad Qu. fr. I, 1, 26; ad Att. v, 21, 7, who may be taken as normative if not typical. Note the sacrifices on behalf of the Romans (p. 38).

112 M. P. Charlesworth, ‘The Refusal of Divine Honours, An Augustan Formula’, PBSR 15 (1939), 1. The latest in date is now Caracalla, Robert, Rev. Phil. 41 (1967), 44–64 esp. 56–7.

113 Montevecchi, O., Aegyptus 50 (1970), 5–33Google Scholar.

114 e.g. I. Olympia 57. The other evidence I have collected conforms.

115 Rostovtzeff, op. cit. (n. 28), 24.

116 Blumenthal, F., ‘Der ägyptische Kaiserkult’, Archiv. für Pap. 5 (1913), 317 ff at pp. 328, 336–7Google Scholar; Kunderewicz, C., JJP 13 (1961), 128Google Scholar. BGU II, 362 iv 6, 11–13; II, 646 = Wilcken, Chrest. 490 = Sel. Pap. II, 222; IV, 1197; IV, 1200; P. Bad. IV, 89; P. Oslo III, 77; P. Oxy. 2553, 2782, 3164.

117 BGU VIII, 1768; P. Amh. II, 35; SB IV, 7457 = SEG VIII, 529; SEG VIII, 531; Wilcken, Chrest. 70. Note however sacrifices to Arsinoe in the city of Alexandria (n. 94).

118 ILS 705 with J. Gascou, ‘Le resent d'Hispellum’, Mel. d'arch. et d'hist. 79 (1967), 609 ff., esp. 647–56.

119 SNG, Von Aulock, 2024. Cf. Milne, J. G., Kolophon and its Coinage (Num. Notes and Mon. 96 (1941)), 15, 100 no. 255,Google Scholar 102 no. 263, 107–8.

120 J. R. Knipfing, ‘The Libelli of the Decian Persecution’, HThR 16 (1923), 345.

121 CTh XVI, 10. For sacrifices in Christian contexts see Robert, , Hell, x, 197–200Google Scholar (by St. Nicholas) and Georgoudi, S., ‘L'égorgement sanctifié en Grèce moderne’, La cuisine du sacrifice (ed. Detienne, M., Vernant, J. P. (1979)), 271Google Scholar.

122 Babut, D., La religion des philosophes grecs (1974)Google Scholar; also H. W. Attridge, ‘The Philosophical Critique of Religion under the Early Empire’, ANRW II, 16, 1 (1978), 45.

123 Or. XXXI, 15.

124 M. P. Nilsson, ‘Pagan Divine Service in Late Antiquity’, HThR 38 (1945), 63.

125 Arch. Epig. Mitt. 6 (1882), 164–5 = BCH 62 (1938), 263–4. Cf. Robert, Et. Anat. (1937), 524 and Laumonier, A., Les cultes indigèies en Carie (1958), 396–7Google Scholar.

126 As Nilsson II2, 372.

127 Puttkammer, F., Quo modo Graeci victimarum carnes distribuerint (Diss. Königsberg, 1912), 28–9Google Scholar.

128 Puttkammer, 51–6; L. Ziehen, RE XVIII, 623; Veyne, P., Le pain et le cirque (1976), 286CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 363 n. 299, 364 n. 306.

129 e.g. I. Kyme 13, ll. 47, 73; TAM II, 54b (Tlos). Cf. Robert, BCH 59 (1935), 442–4 = Op. Min. Sel. I, 283–5 and Arch. Ephemeris 1969, 12–14.

130 IGR IV, 1666 (Teira); OGIS 533 = Bosch 51.

131 IGR IV, 1348 (?Tmolus) with Robert, Hell. XI–XII, 480–1.

132 IG VII, 2712, 66 with n. 63 above.

133 Roussel, P., ‘Les mystères de Panamara’, BCH 51 (1927), 123CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

134 Casabona, op. cit. (n. 38), esp. 22, 30, 32, 80–1, 129–34.

135 e.g. IGR IV, 1155 (Sandaina).

136 Notably Outram, W., De sacrificiis libri duo (1677; Eng. tr. 1817, second ed. 1828)Google Scholar; Smith, W. Robertson, The Religion of the Semites (1889, second ed. 1894)Google Scholar; Hubert, H. and Mauss, M., Sacrifice: its Nature and Function (1898; Eng. tr. 1964)Google Scholar; Money-Kyrle, R., The Meaning of Sacrifice (1930)Google Scholar; de Vaux, R., Studies in Old Testament Sacrifice (1964)Google Scholar; Girard, R., Violence and the Sacred (1972; Eng. tr. 1977)Google Scholar; Leach, E. R., Culture and Communication (1976), 81–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

137 Evans-Pritchard, E. E., Nuer Religion (1956)Google Scholar, ch. X–XI; M. Detienne, ‘Pratiques culinaires et esprit de sacrifice’, La cuisine du sacrifice (n. 121), 7 (translated, in part, as ‘Il coltello da carne’, Dialoghi di archeologia 12 (1979), 6)Google Scholar.

138 Nock, A. D., ‘Deification and Julian’, JRS 47 (1957), 115Google Scholar = Essays II, 833. Cf. Nilsson II2, 182 on dedications. Th e case is however more com plicated than Nock allowed.

139 Nock, ‘ΣΥΝΝΑΟΣ ΘΕΟΣ’, HSCP 41 (1930), 1 = Essays 1, 202 which includes an important passage on the dative and hyper (above n. 107). See also now Ruggini, L. Cracco, ‘Potere e carismi in età imperiale’, Studi storid 3 (1979), 587Google Scholar for the emperor as a failed holy man.

140 Von Fritze, op. cit. (n. 19), 54–5, 84–5 (pl. VIII, 12, 18).

141 Most recently, Vernant, J.-P., ‘À la table des hommes’, La cuisine du sacrifice (n. 121), 37Google Scholar.

142 Vidal-Naquet, p., ‘Valeurs religieuses et mythiques de la terre et du sacrifice dans l'Odyssée’, Annales ESC 25 (1970), 1278Google Scholar = Problèmes de la terreen Grèce ancienne (ed. M. I. Finley (1973)), 269.

143 Burkert, W., Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism (1972), 180–3Google ScholarDetienne, M., Dionysus Slain (1979)Google Scholar.

144 Burridge, K. O. L., New Heaven, Neto Earth. A Study of Millenarian Activities (1969)Google Scholar.

145 See on understanding ritual Lewis, G., Day of Shining Red (1980), esp. p. 26CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

146 Foucault, M., L'ordre du discours (1971)Google Scholar.

147 Suet., Vesp. 23, 4. For other protests see Nock, A. D., Sallustius lxxxix n. 210Google Scholar.

148 e.g. Tristia III, 8; v, 2; Pont. II, 8; IV, 9.

149 e.g. Pan. Lat. XII, 6.

150 Bowersock, G. W., ‘Greek Intellectuals and the Imperial Cult in the Second Century A.D.’, Ent. Hardt XIX (1973) (n. 7), 179Google Scholar.

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