Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-02T21:40:09.413Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Construct of Relationship Quality

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 April 2014

Saif R. Farooqi
Saif R. Farooqi*
Affiliation:
University of Delhi, Delhi, India
*
ADDRESS FOR CORRESPONDENCE: Dr Saifur Rehman Farooqi, 330/4, Ashok Nagar, Allahabad 211001, India. Email: [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

Relationships form the essence of personality and contribute to the individual's wellbeing. Keeping in view the significance that relationships may have on an individual, it becomes compelling to examine relationship quality, the central guiding force of relationships. Relationship quality — the positive or negative feelings about a relationship — is termed an ambiguous concept. The purpose of this article is to review the literature of relationship quality to develop a deep understanding of the construct, by exploring its various determinants. The article begins with a description of the construct followed by a detailed exploration of the factors that determine relationship quality. Research suggests that a wide range of factors have an influence on relationship quality. These include, among others, self-verification and self-enhancement, personality, emotional intelligence, interaction patterns, and partner support. Economic factors also play an important role in determining relationship quality. Previous research also suggests that most of the research on relationship quality has been done on either marital relationships or dating relationships. Further, the determinants of relationship quality may be different with respect to different types of relationships. Additionally, research suggests that relationship quality has been examined using multiple methods, which strengthens the claim of relationship quality being a complex and ambiguous construct.

Keywords

relationshipsrelationship qualitydeterminants of relationship quality
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Relationships Research , Volume 5 , 2014 , e2
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Australian Academic Press Pty Ltd 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Acitelli, L.A. (2008). Knowing when to shut up: Do relationship reflections help or hurt relationship satisfaction? In Forgas, J.P. & Fitness, J. (Eds.), Social relationships: Cognitive, affective, and motivational processes (pp. 115–129). New York: Taylor and Francis Group.Google Scholar
Agnew, C.R., Loving, T.J., & Drigotas, S.M. (2001). Substituting the forest for the trees: Social networks and the prediction of romantic relationship state and fate. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1042–1057.Google Scholar
Asendorpf, J.B., & Banse, R. (2000). Psychology of relationships. Berlin: SpringerGoogle Scholar
Benson, M.L., Fox, G.L., DeMaris, A.A., & Van Wyk, J. (2003). Neighborhood disadvantage, individual economic distress and violence against women in intimate relationships. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 19, 207–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Botwin, M.D., Buss, D.M., & Shackelford, T.A. (1997). Personality and mate preferences: Five factors in mate selection and marital satisfaction. Journal of Personality, 65, 107–136.Google Scholar
Brackett, M.A., Warner, R.M., & Bosco, J.S. (2005). Emotional intelligence and relationship quality among couples. Personal Relationships, 12, 197–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brunstein, J.C., Danglemayer, G., & Schultheiss, O.C. (1996). Personal goals and social support in close relationships: Effects on relationship mood and marital satisfaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1006–1019.Google Scholar
Burstein, N.R. (2007). Economic influences on marriage and divorce. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 26, 387–249.Google Scholar
Campbell, L., Lackenbauer, S.D., & Muise, A. (2006). When is being known or adored by romantic partners most beneficial? Self-perceptions, relationship length, and response to partners’ verifying and enhancing appraisals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32 (10), 1283–1294.Google Scholar
Carton, J.S., Kesslar, E.A., & Pape, C.L. (1999). Nonverbal decoding skills and relationship well-being in adults. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 23, 91–100.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Roberts, R.W., & Shiner, R.L. (2005). Personality development: Stability and change. Annual Reviews of Psychology, 56, 453–484.Google Scholar
Caughlin, J.P., Huston, T.L., & Houts, R.N. (2000). How does personality matter in marriage? An examination of trait anxiety, interpersonal negativity, and marital satisfaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 326–336.Google Scholar
Clark, M.S., Fitness, J., & Brissette, I. (2001). Understanding people's perceptions of relationships is crucial to understanding their emotional lives. In Fletcher, G. & Clark, M.S. (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Interpersonal processes (pp. 253–278). London: BlackwellGoogle Scholar
Clark, M.S., & Grote, N.K. (2003). Close relationships. In Weiner, I.B., Millon, T., & Lerner, M.J. (Eds.), Handbook of psychology, Volume 5: Personality and social psychology (pp. 447–461). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Clark, M.S., Mills, J., & Powell, M.C. (1986). Keeping track of needs in communal and exchange relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 333–338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cobb, R., Davila, J., & Bradbury, T.N. (2001). Attachment security and marital satisfaction: The role of positive perception and social support. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 1131–1143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cunradi, C.B., Caetano, R., & Schafer, J. (2002). Socioeconomic predictors of relationship violence among White, Black, and Hispanic couples in the United States. Journal of Family Violence, 65, 652–667.Google Scholar
Cutrona, C.E., Shaffer, P.A., Wesner, K.A., & Gardner, K.A. (2007). Optimally matching support and spousal sensitivity. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 754–758.Google Scholar
Davis, K.E., & Latty-Mann, H. (1987). Love styles and relationship quality: A contribution to validation. Journal of Social and Personal Relations, 4, 409–428.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, K.E., & Todd, M.J. (1982). Friendship and love relationships. In Davis, K.E. & Mitchell, T.O. (Eds.), Advances in descriptive psychology, volume 2 (pp. 79–122). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Davis, K.E., & Todd, M.J. (1985). Assessing friendship: Prototypes, paradigm causes, and relationship assessment. In Duck, S.W. & Perlman, D. (Eds.), Understanding personal relationships: An interdisciplinary approach (pp. 17–34). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
DeMaris, A., Benson, M.L., Fox, G.L., Hill, T., & Van Wyk, J. (2003). Distal and proximal factors in domestic violence: A test of an integrated model. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65, 652–667.Google Scholar
Donnellan, M.B., Conger, R.D., & Bryant, C.M. (2004). The Big Five and enduring marriages. Journal of Research in Personality, 38, 481–504.Google Scholar
Donnellan, M.B., Larsen-Rife, D., & Conger, R.D. (2005). Personality, family history, and competence in early adult romantic relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 562–576.Google Scholar
Dush, C.M.K., & Amato, P.R. (2005). Consequences of relationship status and quality for subjective well-being. Journal of Personal and Social Relationships, 22 (5), 607–627.Google Scholar
Feeney, J.A. (1995). Adult attachment and emotional control. Personal Relationships, 2, 143–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feeney, J.A. (1999). Adult attachment, emotional control, and marital satisfaction. Personal Relationships, 6, 169–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fincham, F.D., Beach, S.R.H., Harold, G.T., & Osborne, L.N. (1997). Marital satisfaction and depression: Different casual relationships for men and women. Psychological Science, 8, 351–357.Google Scholar
Fitness, J. (2001). Emotional intelligence and intimate relationships. In Carriocchi, J., Forgas, J.P., & Mayer, J.D. (Eds.), Emotional intelligence in everyday life (pp. 98–112). Philadelphia: Psychology PressGoogle Scholar
Fitzsimmons, G.M., & Shah, J.Y. (2008). How goal instrumentality shapes relationship evaluations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 319–337.Google Scholar
Fletcher, G.J.O. (2002). The new science of intimate relationships. Malden: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Fletcher, G.J.O., & Thomas, G. (1996). Close relationship lay theories: Their structure and function. In Fletcher, G. & Fitness, J. (Eds.), Knowledge structures and interaction in close relationships: A social psychological approach (pp. 147–168). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Fletcher, G.J.O., Simpson, J.A., & Thomas, G. (2000). Ideals, perceptions, and evaluations in early relationship development. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 933–940.Google Scholar
Fletcher, G.J.O., Simpson, J.A., Thomas, G., & Giles, L. (1999). Ideals in intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 72–89.Google Scholar
Fowers, B.J., Lyons, E.M., & Montel, K.H. (1996). Positive marital illusions: Self-enhancement or relationship enhancement? Journal of Family Psychology, 10, 192–208.Google Scholar
Fox, G.L., & Chancey, D. (1998). Sources of economic distress: Individual and family outcomes. Journal of Family Issues, 19, 725–749.Google Scholar
Fox, G.L., Benson, M.L., Demaris, A.A., & Van Wyk, J. (2002). Economic distress and intimate partner violence: Testing family stress and resource theories. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 793–807.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gagné, F.M., & Lydon, J.E. (2004). Bias and accuracy in close relationships: An integrative review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8 (4), 322–338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galliher, R.V., Welsh, D.P., Rostosky, S.S., & Kawaguchi, M.C. (2004). Interaction and relationship quality in late adolescent romantic couples. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 21 (2), 203–216.Google Scholar
Gattis, K.S., Berns, S., Simpson, L.E., & Christensen, A. (2004). Birds of a feather or strange birds? Ties among personality dimensions, similarity, and marital quality. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 564–574.Google Scholar
Gavin, L.A., & Furman, W. (1996). Adolescent girls’ relationships with mothers and best friends. Child Development, 67, 375–386.Google Scholar
Goleman, D. (2006). Social intelligence: The new science of human relationships, New York: Arrow BooksGoogle Scholar
Gottman, J.M., Coan, J., Carrere, S., & Swanson, C. (1998). Predicting marital happiness and stability from newlywed interaction. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 5–22.Google Scholar
Hardie, J.H., & Lucas, A. (2010). Economic factors and relationship quality among young couples: Comparing cohabitation and marriage. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 1141–1154.Google Scholar
Helgeson, V.S. (1994). The effects of self-beliefs and relationship beliefs on adjustment to a relationship stressor. Personal Relationships, 1, 241–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heller, D., Watson, D., & Ilies, R. (2004). The role of person versus situation in life satisfaction: A critical examination. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 574–600.Google Scholar
Hendrick, S.S., Hendrick, C., & Adler, N.L. (1988). Romantic relationships: Love, satisfaction, and staying together. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 980–988.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinde, R. (1993). On the way toward a science of social relationships. In Auhagen, A.E. & von Salisch, M. (Eds.), Interpersonal relationships (pp. 7–36). Göttingen: Hogrefe.Google Scholar
Hoffman, S.D., & Duncan, G.J. (1995). The effect of income, wages, and AFDC benefits on marital disruption. Journal of Human Resources, 30, 19–41.Google Scholar
Holland, A.S., & Roisman, J.I. (2008). Big five personality traits and relationship quality: Self-reported, observational, and physiological evidence. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 25 (5), 811–829.Google Scholar
Jones, E.E. (1973). Self and interpersonal evaluations: Esteem theories versus consistency theories. Psychological Bulletin, 79, 185–199.Google Scholar
Kalmijn, M., Loeve, A., & Manting, D. (2007). Income dynamics in couples and dissolution of marriage and cohabitation. Demography, 44, 159–179.Google Scholar
Karney, B.R., & Bradbury, T.N. (1997). Neuroticism, marital interaction, and the trajectory of marital satisfaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1075–1092.Google Scholar
Katz, J., Anderson, P., & Beach, S.R.H. (1996). Self-enhancement versus self-verification: Does spousal report always help? Cognitive Therapy and Research, 20, 354–360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katz, J., Anderson, P., & Beach, S.R.H. (1997). Dating relationship quality: Effects of global self-verification and self-enhancement. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 14 (6), 829–842.Google Scholar
Kelly, H.H., Berscheid, E., Christensen, A., Harvey, J.H., Huston, T.L., Levinger, G., . . . Peterson, D.R. (1983). Analyzing close relationships. In Kelly, H.H., Berscheid, E., Christensen, A., Harvey, J.H., Huston, T.L., Levinger, G. . . . Peterson, D.R. (Eds.), Close relationships: Development and change (pp. 20–67). New York: Freeman.Google Scholar
Kenny, D.A., & Acitelli, L.K. (2001). Accuracy and bias in the perception of the partner in close relationship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 439–448Google Scholar
Knobloch, L.K. (2007). The dark side of relational uncertainty: Obstacle or opportunity? In Spitzberg, B.H. & Cupach, W.R. (Eds.), The dark side of interpersonal communication (2nd ed., pp. 31–59). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Knobloch, L.K., & Knobloch-Feddars, L.M. (2010). The role of relationship uncertainty in depressive symptoms and relationship quality: An actor-partner interdependence model. Journal of Personal and Social Relationships, 27 (1), 137–159.Google Scholar
Knobloch, L.K., & Solomon, D.H. (1999). Measuring the sources and content of relational uncertainty. Communication Studies, 50, 261–278.Google Scholar
Kobak, R.R., & Hazan, C. (1991). Attachment in marriage: Effects of security and accuracy of working models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 861–869.Google Scholar
Kouros, C.D., Papp, L.M., & Cummings, E.M. (2008). Interrelations and moderators of longitudinal links between marital satisfaction and depressive symptoms among couples in established relationships. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 667–677.Google Scholar
Kurdek, L.A. (1998). The nature and predictors of the trajectory of change in marital quality over the first four years of marriage and for first-married husbands and wives. Journal of Family Psychology, 12, 494–510.Google Scholar
Lawrence, E., Bunde, M., Barry, R., Brock, R., Sullivan, K., Pasch, L., . . . Adams, E. (2008). Partner support and marital satisfaction: Support amount, adequacy, provision, and solicitation. Personal Relationships, 15, 445–463.Google Scholar
Lee, J.A. (1973). The colors of love: An exploration of the ways of loving. Toronto: New Press.Google Scholar
Lewin, A.C. (2005). The effect of economic stability on family stability among welfare recipients. Evaluation Review, 29, 223–240.Google Scholar
Long, E.C.J. (1990). Measuring dyadic perspective-taking: Two scales for assessing perspective-taking in marriage and similar dyads. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 50, 91–103.Google Scholar
Long, E.C.J. (1993). Maintaining a stable marriage: Perspective-taking as a predictor of propensity of divorce. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 21, 121–138.Google Scholar
Long, E.C.L., & Andrews, D.W. (1990). Perspective-taking as a predictor of marital adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 126–131.Google Scholar
McCullough, M.E. (2000). Forgiveness as human strength: Theory, measurement, and links to well-being. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 43–55.Google Scholar
MacDonald, T.K., & Ross, M. (1999). Assessing the accuracy of predictions about dating relationships: How and why do lovers’ predictions differ from those made by observers? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1417–1429.Google Scholar
Martz, J.M., Verette, J., Arriaga, S.B., Slovik, L.F., Cox, C.L., & Rusbult, C.E. (1998). Positive illusion in close relationships. Personal Relationships, 5, 159–181.Google Scholar
Mayer, J.D., Caruso, D., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence. Intelligence, 27, 267–298.Google Scholar
Meeks, B.S., Hendrick, S.S., & Hendrick, C. (1998). Communication, love, and relationship satisfaction. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15 (6), 755–773.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morry, M.N., Reich, T., & Kito, M. (2010). How do I see you relative to myself? Relationship quality as a predictor of self- and partner-enhancement within cross-sex friendships, dating relationships, and marriages. The Journal of Social Psychology, 150 (4), 369–392.Google Scholar
Murray, S.L., & Holmes, J.G. (1996). The construction of relationship realities. In Fletcher, G. & Fitness, J. (Eds.), Knowledge structures and interaction in close relationships: A social psychological approach (pp. 91–120). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Murray, S.L. (1999). The quest for conviction: Motivated cognition in romantic relationships. Psychological Inquiry, 10, 23–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murray, S.L., & Holmes, J.G. (1997). A leap of faith? Positive illusions in romantic relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 586–604.Google Scholar
Murray, S.L., Holmes, J.G., & Griffin, D.W. (1996a). The benefits of positive illusions: Idealization and the construction of satisfaction in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 79–98.Google Scholar
Murray, S.L., Holmes, J.G., & Griffin, D.W. (1996b). The self-fulfilling nature of positive illusions in romantic relationships: Love is not blind but prescient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1155–1180.Google Scholar
Neyer, F.J., & Lehnart, J. (2006). Personality, relationships, and health: A dynamic-transactional perspective. In Volrath, M.E. (Ed.), Handbook of personality and health (pp. 195–214). Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Noller, P., & Ruzzene, M. (1991). Communication in marriage: The influence of affect and cognition. In Fletcher, G.J.O. & Fincham, F.D. (Eds.), Cognition in close relationships (pp. 203–233). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Noller, P., Beach, S., & Osgarby, S. (1997). Cognitive and affective processes in marriages. In Halford, W.K. & Markman, H.J. (Eds.), Clinical handbook of marriage and couples (pp. 43–71). New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
O'Mahen, H.A., Beach, S.R.H, & Banawan, S.F. (2001). Depression in marriage. In Harvey, J.H. & Wenzel, A. (Eds.), Close relationships: Maintenance and enhancement (pp. 299–319). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Ono, H. (1998). Husbands’ and wives’ resources and marital dissolution. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 674–689.Google Scholar
Overall, N.C., Fletcher, G.J.O., & Simpson, J.A. (2010). Helping each other grow: Romantic partner support, self- improvement and relationship quality. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 1496–1513.Google Scholar
Papp, L.M., Cummings, E.M., & Goeke-Morey, M.C. (2009). For richer, for poorer: Money as a matter of marital conflict in the home. Family Relations, 58, 91–103.Google Scholar
Pasch, L., & Bradbury, T.N. (1998). Social support, conflict, and the development of marital dysfunction. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 219–230.Google Scholar
Rehman, U.S., Gollan, J., & Mortimer, A.R. (2008). The marital context of depression: Research, limitations, and new directions. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 179–198.Google Scholar
Reis, H.T. (2001). Relationship experiences and emotional well-being. In Ryff, C.D. & Singer, B.H. (Eds.), Emotion, social relationships and health (pp. 57–95). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Reis, H.T., Clark, M.S., & Holmes, J.G. (2004). Perceived partner responsiveness as an organizing construct in the study of intimacy and closeness. In Mashek, D.J. & Aron, A. (Eds.), Handbook of closeness and intimacy (pp. 201–225). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Richardson, D.R., Medvin, N., & Hammock, G. (1988). Love styles, romantic experience, and sensation seeking: A test of validity. Personality and Individual Differences, 9 (3), 645–651.Google Scholar
Robins, R.W., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T.E. (2000). Two personalities, one relationship: Both partners’ personality traits shape the quality of their relationship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 251–259.Google Scholar
Robins, R.W., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T.E. (2002). It's not just who're you with, it's who you are: Personality and relationship experiences across multiple relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 925–964.Google Scholar
Rusbult, C.E., Bissonette, V.L., & Ariaga, S.B. (1998). Accommodation process during the early years of marriage. In Bradbury, T.N. (Ed.), The developmental course of marital dysfunction (pp. 74–113). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rusbult, C.E., Van Lange, P.A.M., Wildschut, T., Yovetich, N.A., & Verette, J. (2000). Perceived superiority in close relationships: Why it exists and persists. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 521–545.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salovey, P., & Mayer, J.D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9, 185–211.Google Scholar
Salovey, P., Mayer, J.D., Goldman, S.L., Turvey, C., & Palfai, T.P. (1995). Emotional attention, clarity, and repair: Exploring emotional intelligence using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale. In Pannebaker, J.W. (Ed.), Emotion, disclosure, and health (pp. 125–154). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Schafer, R.B., Wickrama, K.A.S., & Keith, P.M. (1996). Self-concept disconfirmation, psychological distress, and marital happiness. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, 167–177.Google Scholar
Schutte, N.S., Malouff, J.M., Bobik, C., Coston, T.D., & Greenson, C. (2001). Emotional intelligence and interpersonal relations. Journal of Social Psychology, 141, 523–536.Google Scholar
South, S.J. (2001). Time-dependent effects of wives’ employment on marital dissolution. American Sociological Review, 66, 226–245.Google Scholar
Sullivan, H.S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Swann, W.B., Jr, . (1983). Self-verification: Bringing social reality into harmony with the self. In Suls, J. & Greenwald, A.G. (Eds.), Social psychological perspectives on the self (vol. 2, pp. 33–66). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Swann, W.B. Jr., De La Ronde, C., & Hixon, J.G. (1994). Authenticity and positivity strivings in marriage and courtship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 857–869.Google Scholar
Swann, W.B. Jr., Hixon, J.G., & De La Ronde, C. (1992). Embracing the bitter truth: Negative self-concepts and marital commitment. Psychological Science, 3, 118–121Google Scholar
Van Wyk, J.A., Benson, M.L., Fox, G.L., & DeMaris, A. (2003). Detangling individual-, partner-, and community-level correlates of partner violence. Crime and Delinquency, 49, 412–438.Google Scholar
Watson, D., Hubbard, B., & Wiese, D. (2000). General traits of personality and affectivity as predictors of satisfaction in intimate relationships: Evidence from self- and partner-ratings. Journal of Personality, 68, 413–449.Google Scholar
Whisman, M.A. (2001). The association between depression and marital satisfaction. In Beach, S.R.H. (Ed.), Marital and family processes in depression: A scientific foundation for clinical practice (pp. 3–24). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
White, L., & Rogers, S.J. (2000). Economic circumstances and family outcomes: A review of the 1990s. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 1035–1051.Google Scholar