Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-03T05:46:31.291Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Policy Recommendations for Multi-Actor Implementation: An Assessment of the Field *

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 November 2008

Laurence J O'Toole Jr
Affiliation:
Political Science, Auburn University

Abstract

One goal frequently professed in the research field of multi-actor implementation is to assist those actually involved in the policy process by developing good, empirically-based recommendations. The primary objectives in this article are to investigate the degree of progress attained thus far toward this aim and, as a consequence, to suggest an agenda for future research. The literature is found to impose a number of restrictions on the quality of advice available to practitioners. The field is complex, without much cumulation or convergence. Few well-developed recommendations have been put forward by researchers and a number of proposals are contradictory. Almost no evidence or analysis of utilization in this field has been produced. Two reasons for the lack of development are analyzed: normative disagreement and the state of the field's empirical theory. Yet there remain numerous possibilities for increasing the quality of the latter. Efforts in this direction are a necessary condition of further practical advance.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1986

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Ackermann, Charbel and Steinmann, Walter. 1982. ‘Privatized Policy-Making: Administrative and Consociational Types of Implementation in Regional Economic Policy in Switzerland’. European Journal of Political Research 10, 206): 173–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, Ernest R. 1982. ‘Implementation: Does a Literature Add Up to a Theory?Journal of the American Planning Association 48, 1 (Winter): 132–35.Google Scholar
Alexander, Ernest R. 1985. ‘From Idea to Action: Notes for a Contingency Theory of the Policy Implementation Process’. Administration and Society 16, 4 (02): 403426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Altenstetter, Christa and Bjorkman, James Warner. 1976. ‘The Rediscovery of Federalism: The Impact of Federal Child Health Programs on Connecticut State Health Policy Formation and Service Delivery’. In Jones, Charles and Thomas, Robert eds., Public Policy Making in the Federal System. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage: 217–37.Google Scholar
Altenstetter, Christa and Bjorkman, James Warner. 1977. ‘Implementation of a Federal-State Health Program: Political and Administrative Lessons from Connecticut and Vermont’. Paper presented at annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., 1–4 09.Google Scholar
Ball, Bruce P. 1976. ‘Water Pollution and Compliance Decision Making’. In Jones, Charles and Thomas, Robert, eds., Public Policy-Making in the Federal System. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage: 169–87.Google Scholar
Bardach, Eugene 1977. The Implementation Game. Cambridge: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Bardach, Eugene. 1980. ‘On Designing Implementable Programs’. In Majone, Giandomenico and Quade, E. S.,eds., Pitfalls of Analysis. New York: John Wiley & Sons: 138–58.Google Scholar
Barrett, Susan and Fudge, Colin, eds. 1981. Policy and Action: Essays on the Implementation of Public Policy. London and New York: Methuen.Google Scholar
Baum, Lawrence 1976. ‘Implementation of Judicial Decisions: An Organizational Analysis’. American Politics Quarterly 4, 1 (01): 86114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baum, Lawrence 1981. ‘Comparing the Implementation of Legislative and Judicial Policies’. In Mazmanian, Daniel A. and Sabatier, Paul A., eds., Effective Policy Implementation. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books: 3962.Google Scholar
Berman, Paul. 1978. ‘The Study of Macro- and Micro-Implementation’. Public Policy 26, 2, (Spring): 157–84.Google Scholar
Berman, Paul 1980. ‘Thinking about Programmed and Adaptive Implementation: Matching Strategies to Situations’. In Ingram, Helen M. and Mann, Dean E.., eds., Why Policies Succeed or Fail. Beverly Hills,Calif: Sage: 205227.Google Scholar
Berman, Paul and McLaughlin, Milbrey 1976. ‘Implementation of Educational Innovation’. Educational Forum 40, 3 (03): 347–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beyer, Janice M. and Trice, Harrison M.. 1982. ‘The Utilization Process: A Conceptual Framework and Synthesis of Empirical Findings’. Administrative Science Quarterly 27, 4 (12): 591622.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowen, Elinor. 1982. ‘The Pressman-Wildavsky Paradox: Four Addenda on Why Models Based on Probability Theory Can Predict Implementation Success and Suggest Useful Tactical Advice for Implementers’. Journal of Public Policy 2, 1 (02): 121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowman, Ann O'M. 1984. ‘Intergovernmental and Intersectoral Tensions in Environmental Policy Implementation: The Case of Hazardous Waste’. Policy Studies Review 4, 2 (11): 230–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browne, Angela and Wildavsky, Aaron 1984. ‘Implementation as Mutual Adaptation’. In Pressman, Jeffrey L. and Wildavsky, Aaron, Implementation 3d ed.Berkeley: University of California Press: 206231.Google Scholar
Browning, Rufus P. and Marshall, Dale Rogers. 1976. ‘Implementation of Model Cities and Revenue Sharing in Ten Bay Area Cities: Design and First Findings’. In Jones, Charles and Thomas, Robert, eds., Public Policy-Making in the Federal System. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage: 191216.Google Scholar
Browning, Rufus P. and Tabb, David H. 1981. ‘Implementation and Political Change: Sources of Local Variations in Federal Social Programs’. In Mazmanian, Daniel A. and Sabatier, Paul A., eds., Effective Policy Implementation. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books: 127–46.Google Scholar
Browning, Rufus P. and Tabb, David H.. 1984. Protest Is Not Enough. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Bryner, Gary 1981. ‘Congress, Courts and Agencies: Equal Employment and the Limits of Policy Implementation’. Political Science Quarterly 96, 3 (Fall): 411–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bullock, Charles S. III. 1980. ‘Implementation of Equal Education Opportunity Programs: A Comparative Analysis’. In Mazmanian, Daniel A. and Sabatier, Paul A., eds., Effective Policy Implementation. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books: 89126.Google Scholar
Bunker, Douglas R. 1972. ‘Policy Sciences Perspectives on Implementation Processes’. Policy Sciences 3, 1 (03): 7180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chase, Gordon, 1979. ‘Implementing a Human Services Program: How Hard Will It Be?Public Policy 27, 4 (Fall): 385435Google Scholar
Cleaves, Peter S. 1980. ‘Implementation Amidst Scarcity and Apathy: Political Power and Policy Design’. In Grindle, Merilee S., ed., Politics and Policy Implementation in the Third World. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press: 281303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, Karen S. 1977. ‘Exchange and Power in Networks of Interorganizational Relations’. Sociological Quarterly 18, 1, (03): 6282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, Karen S., Emerson, Richard M., Gillmore, Mary R. and Yamagishi, Toshio. 1983. ‘The Distribution of Power in Exchange Networks: Theory and Experimental Results’. American Journal of Sociology 89, 2(09): 295305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, Tom and Mason, Charles. 1982. ‘Gazing Up at the Bottoms: Problems of Minimal Response in the Implementation of Manpower Policy’. European Journal of Political Research 10, 2 (06): 145–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durant, Robert F. 1984. ‘EPA, TVA and Pollution Control: Implications for a Theory of Regulatory Policy Implementation’. Public Administration Review 44, 4 (07/08): 305315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durant, Robert F. 1985. When Government Regulates Itself: EPA, TVA and Pollution Control in the 1970s. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.Google Scholar
Durant, Robert F., Thomas, Larry W., Brown, Roger G. and McClellan, E. Fletcher 1986. ‘From Complacence to Compliance: Toward a Theory of Intragovernmental Regulation’. Administration and Society 17, 4(02): 433–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, George C. III., 1980. Implementing Public Polity. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press.Google Scholar
Elmore, Richard F.. 1976. ‘Follow Through Planned Variation’. In Williams, Walter and Elmore, Richard F., eds., Social Program Implementation. New York: John Wiley: 101123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elmore, Richard F.. 1977. ‘Lessons from Follow Through’. Policy Analysis 1, 3 (Summer): 549–84.Google Scholar
Elmore, Richard F.. 1978. ‘Organizational Models of Social Program Implementation’. Public Policy 26, 2 (Spring): 185228.Google ScholarPubMed
Elmore, Richard F.. 19751980. ‘Backward Mapping: Implementation Research and Policy Decisions’. Political Science Quarterly 94, 4 (Winter): 601616.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elmore, Richard F.. 1985. ‘Forward and Backward Mapping: Reversible Logic in the Analysis of Public Policy’. In Hanf, Kenneth and Toonen, Theo A. J., eds. Policy Implementation in Federal and Unitary Systems: Questions of Analysis and Design. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff: 3370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emerson, Richard M.. 1962. ‘Power Dependence Relations’. American Sociological Review 27, 1(02): 3141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emerson, Richard M. 1972. ‘Exchange Theory’. In Berger, Joseph, Zelditch, Morris Jr. and Anderson, Bo, eds.,Sociological Theories in Progress. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Emerson, Richard M. 1976. ‘Social Exchange Theory’. In Inkeles, Alex, Coleman, James and Smelser, Neil, eds., Annual Review of Sociology, 2: 335–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodwin, Leonard and Moen, Phyllis 1981. ‘The Evolution and Implementation of Family Welfare Policy’. In Mazmanian, Daniel A. and Sabatier, Paul A., eds., Effective Policy Implementation. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books: 147–68.Google Scholar
Grindle, Merilee S. 1980. ‘Policy Content and Context in Implementation’. In Grindle, , ed., Politics and Policy Implementation in the Third World. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press: 334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grindle, Merilee S.. 1981. ‘Anticipating Failure: The Implementation of Rural Development Programs’. Public Policy 29, 1 (Winter): 5174.Google Scholar
Gross, Neal, et al. 1971. Implementing Organizational Innovations. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Gunn, Lewis 1978. ‘Why Is Implementation So Difficult?Management Services in Government (11).Google Scholar
Ham, Christopher and Hill, Michael 1984. The Policy Process in the Modem Capitalist State. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Hambleton, Robin 1983. ‘Planning Systems and Policy Implementation’, Journal of Public Policy 3, 4(10): 397418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hargrove, E.C. 1983. ‘The Search for Implementation Theory’. In Zeckhauser, Richard J. and Leebaert, Derek, eds., What Role for Government? Lessons from Policy Research. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Hays, R. Allen 1982. ‘Social Welfare Programs and Political Conflict in Local Communities: The Mediating Function of the Implementing Agency’. Policy Studies Journal 11, 2 (12): 234–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higgins, Thomas J. 1985. ‘Implementation Revisited: The Case of Federal Demonstration’, Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 4, 3 (Spring): 436–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hjern, Benny 1982. ‘Implementation Research – The Link Gone Missing’.Journal of Public Policy 2, 3(08): 301308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hjern, Benny and Hull, Chris 1982. ‘Implementation Research as Empirical Constitutionalism’. European Journal of Political Research 10, 2 (06): 105115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hjern, Benny and Hull, Chris 1985. ‘Small Firm Employment Creation: An Assistance Structure Explanation’. In Hanf, Kenneth and Toonen, Theo A. J., eds., Policy Implementation in Federal and Unitary Systems: Questions of Analysis and Design. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff: 131–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hjern, Benny and Porter, David O. 1981. ‘Implementation Structures: A New Unit for Administrative Analysis’. Organization Studies 2, 3 (07): 211–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogwood, Brian W. and Gunn, Lewis A.. 1984. Policy Analysis for the Real World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hucke, Jochen. 1978. ‘Bargaining in Regulative Policy Implementation: The Case of Air and Water Pollution Control’. Environmental Policy and Law, 4, 2/3 (07): 109115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ingram, Helen M. and Mann, Dean E. 1980. ‘Policy Failure: An Issue Deserving Analysis’. In Ingram, Mann, eds., Why Policies Succeed or Fail. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage: 1132.Google Scholar
Jones, E. Terrance 1980. ‘Block Grants and Urban Policies: Implementation and Impact’. Policy Studies Journal 8, 6 (Summer): 906912.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelman, Steven 1984. ‘Using Implementation Research to Solve Implementation Problems: The Case of Energy Emergency Assistance’, Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 4, 1 (Fall): 7591.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirst, Michael and Jung, Richard. 1982. ‘The Utility of a Longitudinal Approach in Assessing Implementation: A Thirteen-Year View of Title I, ESEA’. In Williams, Walter et al. , Studying Implementation: Methodological and Administrative Issues. Chatham, N.J.: Chatham House: 119–48.Google Scholar
Larson, James S. 1980. Why Government Programs Fail: Improving Policy Implementation. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Lazin, Fred. 1980. ‘The Effects of Administrative Linkages on Implementation: Welfare Policy in Israel’. Policy Sciences 12, 2 (08): 193211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitt, Ruth. 1980. Implementing Public Policy. London: Croom Helm.Google Scholar
Lindblom, Charles E. and Cohen, David K.. 1979. Usable Knowledge. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Luft, Harold 1976. ‘Benefit Cost Analysis and Public Policy Implementation’. Public Policy 24, 4 (Fall): 437–62.Google ScholarPubMed
McLanahan, Sara 1980. ‘Organizational issues in U.S. Health Policy Implementation: Participation, Discretion and Accountability’. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 16, 3, (07/08/09): 354–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, Milbrey Wallin 1976. ‘Implementation as Mutual Adaptation: Change in Classroom Organization’. Teachers College Record 77, 3 (02): 339–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McMahon, Laurie, Barrett, Susan and Hill, Michael. 1982. ‘Power Bargaining Models in Policy Analysis… What Prescriptions for Practitioners?’ Revised version of a paper presented at the PACT welfth Annual Conference,University of York6–8 09.Google Scholar
Majone, Giandomenico and Wildavsky, Aaron 1978. ‘Implementation as Evolution’. In Freeman, Howard E., ed., Policy Studies Review Annual, vol. 2. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage: 103117.Google Scholar
Mandell, Myrna. 1984. ‘Application of Network Analysis to the Implementation of a Complex Project’. Human Relations 37, 8 (08): 659–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marvel, Mary K.. 1982. ‘Implementation and Safety Regulation: Variations in Federal and State Administration under OSHA’. Administration and Society 14, 1 (05): 1533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazmanian, Daniel A. and Sabatier, Paul A., eds., 1981. Effective Policy Implementation. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Mazmanian, Daniel A. and A. Sabatier, Paul, eds., 1983. Implementation and Public Policy. Glenview, II.: Scott, Foresman and Co..Google Scholar
Mead, Lawrence M. 1977. Institutional Analysis: An Approach to Implementation Problems in Medicaid. Washington. D.C.: Urban Institute.Google Scholar
Mechling, Jerry. 1978. ‘Analysis and Implementation: Sanitation Policies in New York City’. Public Policy 26, 2 (Spring): 263–84.Google Scholar
Menzel, Donald C.. 1981. ‘Implementation of the Federal Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977’. Public Administration Review 41, 2 (03/04): 212–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Menzel, Donald C.. 1983. ‘Redirecting the Implementation of a Law: The Reagan Administration and Coal Surface Mining Regulation’. Public Administration Review 43, 5 (09/10): 411–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milward, H. Brinton. 1982. ‘Interorganizational Policy Systems and Research on Public Organizations’. Administration and Society 13, 4 (02): 457–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitnick, Barry M. and W. Backoff., Robert 1984. ‘The Incentive Relation in Implementation’. In Edwards, George C. IIIed., Public Policy Implementation. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press: 59122.Google Scholar
Molnar, Joseph J. and L. Rogers, David 1982. ‘Interorganizational Coordination in Environmental Management: Process, Strategy and Objectives’. In Mann, Dean E., ed., Environmental Policy Implementation. Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath: 95108.Google Scholar
Montjoy, Robert S. and O'Toole, Laurence J. Jr. 1979. ‘Toward a Theory of Policy Implementation: An Organizational Perspective’. Public Administration Review 39, 5 (09/10): 465–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, Mark H. 1978a. ‘A ‘Feasibility Estimate’ of a Policy Decision to Expand Methadone Maintenance’. Public Policy 26, 2 (Spring): 285304.Google Scholar
Moore, Mark H.. 1978b. ‘Reorganization Plan No. 2 Reviewed: Problems in Implementing a Strategy to Reduce the Supply of Drugs to Illicit Markets in the United States’. Public Policy 26, 2 (Spring): 229–62.Google Scholar
Mueller, Keith J. 1984. ‘Local Implementation of National Policy’. Policy Studies Review 4, 1 (08): 8698.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, Jerome T. 1971. ‘Title I of ESEA: The Politics of Implementing Federal Education Reform’.Harvard Educational Review 41, 1 (02): 3563.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, Jerome T. 1973. ‘The Education Bureaucracies Implement Novel Policy: The Politics of Title I of ESEA,1965–72’. In Sindler, Allen P., ed., Policy and Politics in America. Boston: Little, Brown: 160–98.Google Scholar
Murphy, Jerome T. 1974. State Education Agencies and Discretionary Funds. Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath.Google Scholar
Murphy, Jerome T. 1976. ‘Title V of ESEA: The Impact of Discretionary Funds on State Education Bureaucracies’. In Williams, Walter and Elmore, Richard F., eds., Social Program Implementation. New York: John Wiley: 77100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nakamura, Robert T. and Smallwood, Frank 1980. The Politics of Policy Implementation. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Nelson, Richard R. 1977. The Moon and the Ghetto. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Nixon, Jaqi, 1980. ‘The Importance of Communication in the Implementation of Government Policy at the Local Level’. Policy and Politics 8, 2 (04): 127–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Brien, David M. 1980. ‘Crosscutting Policies, Uncertain Compliance and Why Policies Often Cannot Succeed or Fail’. In Ingram, Helen M. and E. Mann, Dean, eds., Why Policies Succeed or Fail. Beverly Hills. Calif.: Sage: 83106.Google Scholar
O'Toole, Laurence J. Jr. 1983. ‘Interorganizational Co-operation and the Implementation of Labour Policy Recommendations for Multi-Actor Implementation Market Training Policies: Sweden and the Federal Republic of Germany’. Organizational Studies 4, 2 (04): 129–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Toole, Laurence J. Jr. In Montjoy, Robert S.. 1984. ‘Interorganizational Policy Implementation: A Theoretical Perspective’. Public Administration Review 44, 6 (11/12): 491503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pesso, Tana. 1978. ‘Local Welfare Offices: Managing the Intake Process’. Public Policy 26, 2 (Spring):305330Google Scholar
Porter, David O. 1976. ‘Federalism, Revenue Sharing and Local Government’. In Jones, Charles and Thomas, Robert, eds., Public Policy-Making in the Federal System. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage: 81101.Google Scholar
Porter, David O. and Olsen, Eugene A.. 1976. ‘Some Critical Issues in Government Centralization and Decentralization’. Public Administration Review 36, 1 (01/02): 7284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pressman, Jeffrey L. and Wildavsky, Aaron. 1984 (earlier editions: 1973, 1979) Implementation 3d ed.Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Radian, Alex and Sharkansky, Ira. 1979. ‘Tax Reform in Israel: Partial Implementation of Ambitious Goals’. Policy Analysis 5, 3 (Summer): 351–66.Google Scholar
Radin, Beryl. 1977. Implementation, Change and the Federal Bureaucracy: School Desegregation Policy in HEW, 1964–1968. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University.Google Scholar
Raelin, Joseph A. 1980. ‘A Mandated Basis of Interorganizational Relations: The Legal-Political Network’. Human Relations 33, 1 (01): 5768.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raelin, Joseph A. 1982. ‘A Policy Output Model of Interorganizational Relations’. Organization Studies 3. 3 (07): 243–67Google Scholar
Rawson, George E. 1981. ‘Organizational Goals and Their Impact on the Policy Implementation Process’. In Palumbo, Dennis J. and Harder, Marvin A., eds., Implementing Public Policy. Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath: 2941.Google Scholar
Regan, Priscilla M. 1984. ‘Personal Information Policies in the United States and Britain: The Dilemma of Implementation Considerations’. Journal of Public Policy 4, 1 (02): 1938.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rein, Martin and Rabinovitz, Francine 1978. ‘Implementation: A Theoretical Perspective’. In Burnham, Walter Dean and Weinberg, Martha W., ed., American Politics and Public Policy. Cambridge: MIT Press: 307335.Google Scholar
Ripley, Randall B. and Franklin, Grace A. 1982. Bureaucracy and Policy Implementation. Homewood, Ill.: The Dorsey Press.Google Scholar
Rodgers, Harrell R. Jr. and Bullock, Charles S. III. 1976. Coercion to Compliance. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Rose, Richard. 1977. ‘Implementation and Evaporation: The Record of MBO’. Public Administration Review 37, 1 (01/02): 6471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenbaum, Nelson. 1980. ‘Statutory Structure and Policy Implementation: The Case of Wetlands Regulation’. In Mazmanian, Daniel A. and Sabatier, Paul A., eds., Effective Policy Implementation. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books: 6385.Google Scholar
Ross, Lester. 1984. ‘The Implementation of Environmental Policy in China: A Comparative Perspective’. Administration and Society 15, 4 (02): 489516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sabatier, Paul A. 1986. ‘Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches to Implementation Research: ACritical Analysis and Suggested Synthesis’. Journal of Public Policy. 6, 1: 2148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sabatier, Paul A. and Hanf, Kenneth 1985. ‘Policy Learning in Interorganizational Structures’. In Hanf, and Toonen, Theo A. J., eds., Policy Implementation in Federal and Unitary Systems: Questions of Analysis and Design. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff: 301333.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sabatier, Paul A. and Klosterman, Barbara J.. 1981. ‘A Comparative Analysis of Policy Implementation under Different Statutory Regimes: The San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission,1965–1972’. In Mazmanian, Daniel A. and Sabatier, , eds., Effective Policy Implementation. Lexington,Mass.: Lexington Books: 169206.Google Scholar
Sabatier, Paul A. and Mazmanian, Daniel 1979. ‘The Conditions of Effective Implementation: A Guide toAccomplishing Policy Objectives’. Policy Analysis 5, 4 (Fall): 481504.Google ScholarPubMed
Sabatier, Paul A. and Mazmanian, Daniel 1981. ‘The Implementation of Public Policy: A Framework of Analysis’. In Mazmanian, and Sabatier, , eds., Effective Policy Implementation. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books: 335Google Scholar
Sabatier, Paul A. and Mazmanian, Daniel 1983. ‘Policy Implementation’, in Nagel, Stuart, ed., The Encyclopedia of Policy Studies. New York: Marcel Dekker: 143–69.Google Scholar
Sapolsky, Harvey. 1972. The Polaris Missile System: Bureaucratic and Programmatic Success in Government. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scharpf, Fritz W. 1977. ‘Public Organization and the Waning of the Welfare State: A Research Perspective’. European Journal of Political Research 5, 4 (12): 339–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scharpf, Fritz W. 1978. ‘Interorganizational Policy Studies: Issues, Concepts and Perspectives’. In Kenneth Hanf, and Scharpf, Fritz W., eds., Interorganizational Policy Making. London: Sage: 345–70.Google Scholar
Scharpf, Fritz W., Reissert, Bernd and Schnabel, Fritz. 1978. ‘Policy Effectiveness and Conflict Avoidance in Interorganizational Policy Formation’. In Hanf, Kenneth and Scharpf, , eds., Interorganizational Policy Making. London: Sage: 57112.Google Scholar
Scheirer, Mary Ann. 1981. Program Implementation: The Organizational Context. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage.Google Scholar
Simon, Herbert A. 1976. Administrative Behavior 3d ed.New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Skelcher, Chris, Hinings, Bob, Steve, Leach and Stewart, Ransom. 1983. “Centre-Local Linkages: The Impact of Policy Planning Systems’. Journal of Public Policy 3, 4 (10): 419–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Thomas B. 1973. ‘The Policy Implementation Process’. Policy Sciences 4, 2 (June): 197209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sorg, James D. 1983. ‘A Typology of Implementation Behaviors of Street-Level Bureaucrats’. Policy Studies Review 2, 3 (02): 391406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, Robert D. 1979. ‘Implementing Federal Programs at the Local Level’. Political Science Quarterly 94, 3 (Fall): 419–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, Frank J. 1982. ‘Bureaucratic Discretion and the National Health Service Corps’. Political Science Quarterly 97, 3 (Fall): 427–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, Joel A. 1982. ‘Implementing Workmen's Compensation Programs in the States’.Administration and Society 14, 2 (08): 237–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Horn, , Carl, E. 1978. ‘Implementing CETA: The Federal Role’. Policy Analysis 4, 2 (Spring): 159–83Google Scholar
Van Horn, Carl E., ‘1979a ‘Evaluating the New Federalism: National Goals and Local Implementors’. Public Administration Review 39, 1 (01/02): 1722.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Horn, Carl E., 1979b. Policy Implementation in the Federal System: National Goals and Local Implementors. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, D. C. Heath.Google Scholar
Van Horn, Carl E. and Van Meter, Donald S.. 1976. ‘The Implementation of Intergovernmental Policy’. In Jones, Charles and Thomas, Robert, eds., Public Policy-Making in the Federal System. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage: 3962Google Scholar
Van Meter, , Donald, S. and Van Horn, Carl E.. 1975. ‘The Policy Implementation Process: A Conceptual Framework’. Administration and Society 6, 4 (02): 445–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weatherley, Richard and Lipsky, Michael. 1977. ‘Street-Level Bureaucrats and Institutional Innovation: Implementing Special Education Reform’. Harvard Educational Review 47, 2 (05): 171–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiler, Philip, et al. 1982The Implementation of Model Standards in Local Health Departments’. American Journal of Public Health 72, 11 (11): 1230–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weimer, David Leo. 1983. ‘Problems of Expedited Implementation: The Strategic PetroleumReserve’. Journal of Public Policy 3, 2 (05): 169–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willer, David. 1985. ‘Power and Centrality’. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Sociological Society, St. Louis, Mo., 04.Google Scholar
Williams, Walter. 1980. The Implementation Perspective. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, Walter. 1982. ‘The Study of Implementation: An Overview’. In Williams, , et al. , Studying Implementation: Methodological and Administrative Issues. Chatham, N. J.: Chatham House Publishers, Inc.: 117.Google Scholar
Williamson, Oliver E. 1981. ‘The Economics of Organization: The Transaction Cost Approach’. American Journal of Sociology 87, 3 (11): 548–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wittrock, Bjorn. 1985. ‘Beyond Organizational Design: Contextuality and the Political Theory of Public Policy’. In Hanf, Kenneth and Toonen, Theo A. J., eds., Policy Implementation in Federal and Unitary Systems: Questions of Analysis and Design. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff: 1728.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wittrock, Bjorn., Lindstrom, Stefan and Zetterberg, Kent. 1982. ‘Implementation beyond Hierarchy: Swedish Energy Research Policy’. European Journal of Political Research 10, 2 (06): 131–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yaffee, Steven Lewis. 1982. Prohibitive Policy: Implementing the Federal Endangered Species Act. Cambridge: MIT Press.Google Scholar