1. This article draws from my text Environmental Policy and Politics (New York, 1996)Google Scholar , a new edition of which is in progress for Longman, to be published in 2000); Kraft, Michael E. and Vig, Norman J., “Environmental Policy from the 1970s to 2000: An Overview,” in Environmental Policy: New Directions for the Twenty-first Century, ed. Vig, Norman J. and Kraft, Michael E. (Washington, D.C., 1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; and Mazmanian, Daniel A. and Kraft, Michael E., eds., Toward Sustainable Communities: Transition and Transformations in Environmental Policy (Cambridge, Mass., 1999)Google Scholar.

2. Kingdon, John, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policy, 2d ed. (New York, 1995)Google Scholar ; Sabatier, Paul A. and Jenkins-Smith, Hank C., Policy Change and Learning: An Advocacy Coalition Approach (Boulder, Colo., 1993)Google Scholar ; and Baumgartner, Frank R. and Jones, Bryan D., Agendas and Instability in American Politics (Chicago, 1993).Google Scholar I provide a fuller discussion of the frameworks and a narrative history of U.S. environmental policy in , Kraft, Environmental Policy and Politics, chap. 3Google Scholar.

3. The role of disasters as catalytic or focusing events in agenda setting is assessed in Birkland, Thomas A., After Disaster: Agenda Setting, Public Policy, and Focusing Events (Washington, D.C., 1997).Google Scholar Birkland investigates the impact of natural disasters, oil spills (both the Exxon Valdez and the Santa Barbara incidents), and nuclear accidents in altering the environmental policy agenda.

4. Bosso, Christopher J., “Environmental Groups and the New Political Landscape,” in Environmental Policy, ed. , Vig and , Kraft.Google Scholar

5. Birkland, After Disaster.

6. The use of such communication strategies to shape the agenda-setting process is described in some detail in Kraft, Michael E. and Wuertz, Diana, “Environmental Advocacy in the Corridors of Government,” in The Symbolic Earth: Discourse and Our Creation of the Environment, ed. Cantrill, James G. and Oravec, Christine L. (Lexington, Ky., 1996)Google Scholar.

7. Furlong, Scott R., “Interest Group Influence on Rulemaking,” Administration and Society 29 (July 1997): 325–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; and Schlozman, Kay Lehman and Tierney, John T., Organised Interests and American Democracy (New York, 1986)Google Scholar.

8. , Baumgartner and , Jones, Agendas and Instability in American PoliticsGoogle Scholar ; and Bosso, Christopher J., Pesticides and Politics: The Life Cycle of a Public Issue (Pittsburgh, 1987)Google Scholar.

9. This argument is presented at length in Mazmanian, Daniel A. and Kraft, Michael E., “The Three Epochs of the Environmental Movement,” in Toward Sustainable Communities, ed. , Mazmanian and , KraftGoogle Scholar.

10. See Hempel, Lamont C., “Conceptual and Analytical Challenges in Building Sustainable Communities,” in Toward Sustainable Communities, ed. , Mazmanian and , KraftGoogle Scholar ; and President's Council on Sustainable Development, Sustainable America: A New Consensus for Prosperity, Opportunity, and a Healthy Environment for the Future (Washington, D.C., 1996)Google Scholar.

11. , Kraft and , Vig, “Environmental Policy from the 1970s to 2000.” The value change is described best by Samuel P. Hays in Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985 (New York, 1987).Google Scholar Documentation of the rise of environmentalism as a new set of public values can be found in Paehlke, Robert C., Environmentalism and the Future of Progressive Politics (New Haven, 1989).CrossRefGoogle Scholar Public attitudes revealed in a large number of surveys are explored in detail in Dunlap, Riley E., “Public Opinion and Environmental Policy” in Environmental Politics and Policy: Theories and Evidence, 2d ed., ed. Lester, James P. (Durham, N.C., 1995)Google Scholar.

12. See Culhane, Paul J., Public Lands Politics: Interest Group Influence on the Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management (Baltimore, 1981), chap. 1Google Scholar ; , Kraft, Environmental Policy and Politics, chap. 5Google Scholar ; Klyza, Christopher McGrory, Who Controls Public Lands? Mining, Forestry, and Grazing Politics, 1870-1990 (Chapel Hill, 1996)Google Scholar ; Davis, Charles, ed., Western Public Lands and Environmental Politics (Boulder, Colo., 1997)Google Scholar ; and Lacey, Michael J., ed., Government and Environmental Politics: Essays on Historical Developments Since World War Two (Baltimore, 1989)Google Scholar.

13. Kraft, Michael E., “Population Policy,” in Encyclopedia of Policy Studies, 2d ed., ed. Nagel, Stuart S. (New York, 1994)Google Scholar ; and Piotrow, Phyllis T., World Population Crisis: The United States Response (New York, 1973)Google Scholar.

14. , Kraft, “Population Policy,” and Mazur, Laurie Ann, ed., Beyond the Numbers: A Reader on Population, Consumption, and the Environment (Washington, D.C., 1994).Google Scholar As a sign of continuing neglect of population issues, the Carter administration's 1980 Global 2000 Report to the President, which emphasized projections of substantial and harmful population growth, had little apparent impact on policymakers or the public. The report was strongly repudiated by the Reagan White House. The Reagan administration commissioned another set of studies to try to refute the Carter effort, and they were published eventually in an edited volume, Simon, Julian L. and Kahn, Herman, eds., The Resourceful Earth: A Response to “Global 2000” (New York, 1984)Google Scholar.

15. Ringquist, Evan J., Environmental Protection at the State Level: Politics and Progress in Controlling Pollution (Armonk, N.Y., 1993), chap. 2Google Scholar ; and Davies, J. Clarence III and Davies, Barbara S., The Politics of Pollution, 2d ed. (Indianapolis, 1975)Google Scholar.

16. See , Kraft, Environmental Policy and Politics, 75Google Scholar ; and , Bosso, “Seizing Back the Day.”Google Scholar

17. Downs, Anthony, “Up and Down with Ecology—The Issue-Attention Cycle,” The Public Interest (Summer 1972): 38–50Google Scholar ; and , Dunlap, “Public Opinion and Environmental Policy.”Google Scholar

18. Harris, Richard A. and Milkis, Sidney M., The Politics of Regulatory Change: A Tale of Two Agencies (New York, 1989).Google Scholar

19. For a description of the major acts, see , Kraft, Environmental Policy and Politics; Walter A. Rosenbaum, Environmental Politicsand Policy, 4th ed. (Washington, D.C., 1998)Google Scholar ; and , Vig and , Kraft, eds., Environmental Policy, appendix 1Google Scholar.

20. See Jones, Charles O., Clean Air: The Policies and Politics of Pollution Control (Pittsburgh, 1975).Google Scholar

21. Whitaker, John C., Striking a Balance: Environment and Natural Resource Policy in the Nixon-Ford Years (Washington, D.C., 1976).Google Scholar

22. Kraft, Michael E., “Environmental Policy in Congress,” and Sheldon Katnieniecki, “Political Parties and Environmental Policy,” in Environmental Politics and Policy, ed. , Lester.Google Scholar

23. Jones, Clean Air.

24. Whitaker, Striking a Balance; Shanley, Robert A., Presidential Influence and Environmental Policy (Westport, Conn., 1992)Google Scholar ; and Vig, Norman J., “Presidential Leadership and the Environment,” in Environmental Policy in the 1990s: Toward a New Agenda, 2d ed., ed. Vig, Norman J. and Kraft, Michael E. (Washington, D.C.)Google Scholar.

25. , Dunlap, “Public Opinion and Environmental Policy.”Google Scholar

26. See Vig and Kraft, Environmental Policy, appendices 2, 3, and 4.

27. On the important role of the courts in overseeing such administrative developments and their contribution to the establishment of environmental law, see Wenner, Lettie M., The Environmental Decade in Court (Bloomington, 1982)Google Scholar , and O'Leary, Rosemary, Environmental Change: Federal Courts and the EPA (Philadelphia, 1993)Google Scholar.

28. See Andrews, Richard N. L., Environmental Policy and Administrative Change: Implementation of the National Environmental Policy Act (Lexington, Mass., 1976)Google Scholar ; Caldwell, Science and the National Environmental Policy Act; and Bartlett, Robert V., ed., Policy Through Impact Assessment: Institutionalised Analysis as a Policy Strategy (New York, 1989)Google Scholar.

29. See Clarke, Jeanne Nienaber and McCool, Daniel C., Staking Out the Terrain: Power and Performance Among Natural Resource Agencies, 2d ed. (Albany, 1996)Google Scholar ; and Conner, Hanna J. and Moote, Margaret A., The Politics of Ecosystem Management (Washington, D.C., 1998)Google Scholar.

30. Rabe, Barry G., “Power to the States: The Promise and Pitfalls of Decentralization,” in Environmental Policy in the 1990s, 3d ed., ed. Vig, Norman J. and Kraft, Michael E. (Washington, D.C., 1997), 31.Google Scholar

31. See Kraft, Michael E., Clary, Bruce B., and Tobin, Richard J., “The Impact of New Federalism on State Environmental Policy: The Great Lakes States,” in The Midwest Response to the New Federalism, ed. Eisinger, Peter K. and Gormley, William (Madison, Wis., 1988)Google Scholar ; and Tobin, Richard J., “Environmental Protection and the New Federalism: A Longitudinal Analysis of State Perceptions,” Publius: The Journal of Federalism 22 (Winter 1992): 93–107Google Scholar.

32. , Rabe, “Power to the States.” See also DeWitt John, Civic Environmentalism: Alternatives to Regulation in States and Communities (Washington, D.C., 1994)Google Scholar ; Ringquist, Environmental Protection at the State Level; and Lowry, William R., The Dimensions of Federalism: State Governments and Pollution Control Policies (Durham, N.C., 1992)Google Scholar

33. Marcus, Alfred A., Promise and Performance: Choosing and Implementing Environmental Policy (Westport, Conn., 1980)Google Scholar ; Wenner, The Environmental Decade in Court; O'Leary, Environ-mental Change; Ringquist, Environmental Protection at the State Level; and Landy, Marc K., Roberts, Marc J., and Thomas, Stephen R., The Environmental Protection Agency: Asking the Wrong Questions, 2d ed. (New York, 1994)Google Scholar.

34. Kraft, Michael E., “A New Environmental Policy Agenda: The 1980 Presidential Campaign and Its Aftermath,” in Environmental Policy in the 1980s: Reagan's New Agenda, eds., Vig, Norman J. and Kraft, Michael E. (Washington, D.C., 1984), 38.Google Scholar

35. Heatherly, Charles L., ed., Mandate for Leadership: Policy Management in a Conservative Administration (Washington, D.C., 1981).Google Scholar The key environmental policy recommendations can be found in Louis J. Cordia, “Environmental Protection Agency,” and James E. Hinish Jr., “Regulatory Reform: An Overview,” in this volume.

36. , Vig and , Kraft, Environmental Policy in the 1980s.Google Scholar See also Eads, George C. and Fix, Michael, Relief or Reform? Reagan's Regulatory Dilemma (Washington, D.C., 1984)Google Scholar.

37. , Vig and , Kraft, Environmental Policy in the 1980sGoogle Scholar ; and Portney, Paul R., ed., Natural Resources and the Environment: The Reagan Approach (Washington, D.C., 1984)Google Scholar.

38. See Shabecoff, Philip, “Reagan and Environment: To Many a Stalemate,” New York Times, 2 January 1989, 1, 8.Google Scholar

39. , Bosso, “Environmental Groups and the New Political Landscape,” 64.Google Scholar

40. See Dunlap, Riley E., “Public Opinion on the Environment in the Reagan Era,” Environment 29 (July-August 1987): 6-11, 32–37.Google Scholar

41. Holusha, John, “Bush Pledges Aid for Environment,” New York Times, 1 September 1988, 9.Google Scholar

42. See Bryner, Gary C., Blue Skies, Green Politics: The Clean Air Act of 1990 and Its Implementation (Washington, D.C., 1995).Google Scholar

43. Kraft, Michael E., “Environmental Policy in Congress: From Consensus to Gridlock,” in Environmental Policy, ed. , Vig and , Kraft.Google Scholar

44. See Swifter, Jacqueline Vaughn, Green Backlash: The History and Politics of Environmental Opposition in the U.S. (Boulder, Colo., 1997).Google Scholar

45. John, Civic Environmentalism; , Mazmanian and , Kraft, eds., Toward Sustainable Communi-ties; National Academy of Public Administration, Setting Priorities, Getting Results: A New Direction for EPA (Washington, D.C., 1995)Google Scholar ; and Kraft, Michael E. and Scheberle, Denise, “Environmental Federalism at Decade's End: New Approaches and Strategies,” Publius 28:1 (Winter 1998): 133–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

46. For a history of how the new approach of ecosystem management developed and gradually replaced older paradigms in natural-resources management, see Conner and Moote, The Politics of Ecosystem Management. A somewhat parallel argument in support of using eco-logical principles to shape environmental policy can be found in Chertow, Marian R. and Esty, Daniel C., eds., Thinking Ecologically: The Next Generation of Environmental Policy (New Haven, 1997).Google Scholar

47. United Nations, Agenda 21: The United Nations Programme of Action from Rio (New York, 1992)Google Scholar ; World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (New York, 1987)Google Scholar ; National Commission on the Environment, Choosing a Sustainable Future (Washington, D.C., 1993)Google Scholar.

48. President's Council on Sustainable Development, Sustainable America. A summary of recommendations found in other reports by the PCSD can be found in Sitarz, Daniel, ed., Sustainable America: America's Environment, Economy and Society in the 21st Century (Carbondale, Ill., 1998).Google Scholar

49. See, for example, , Sitarz, ed., Sustainable America, and Hempel, “Conceptual and Analytical Challenges in Building Sustainable Communities.”Google Scholar

50. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, People, Places, and Partnerships: A Progress Report on Community-Based Environmental Protection (Washington, D.C., 1997)Google Scholar , and EPA Strategic Plan (Washington, D.C., 1998).Google Scholar See also , Kraft and , Scheberle, “Environmental Federalism at Decade's End.”Google Scholar

51. National Academy of Public Administration (NAPA), Setting Priorities, Getting Results. See also Rabe, “Power to the States.”

52. See , Mazmanian and , Kraft, Toward Sustainable Communities, and Sexton, Ken, Marcus, Alfred A., Easter, K. William, and Burkhardt, Timothy D., eds., Better Environmental Decisions: Strategies for Governments, Businesses, and Communities (Washington, D.C., 1999).Google Scholar

53. See , Sexton et al., Better Environmental DecisionsGoogle Scholar; NAPA, Setting Priorities; Getting Results; and Davies, J. Clarence and Mazurek, Jan, Pollution Control in the United States: Evaluating the System (Washington, D.C., 1998).Google Scholar

54. See Bartlett, Robert V., “Evaluating Environmental Policy Success and Failure,” in Environmental Policy in the 1990s, 2d ed., ed. Vig, Norman J. and Kraft, Michael E. (Washington, D.C., 1994).Google Scholar

55. , Davies and , Mazurek, Pollution Control in the United StatesGoogle Scholar ; Ringquist, Evan J., “Evaluating Environmental Policy Outcomes,” in Environmental Politics and Policy, ed. , Lester; and Knaap, Gerrit J. and Kim, Tschangho John, eds., Environmental Program Evaluation: A Primer (Champaign, Ill.)Google Scholar.

56. Environmental Protection Agency, National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report (Research Triangle Park, N.C.: Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, January 1998).Google Scholar

57. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Water Quality Inventory: 1996 Report to Congress (Washington, D.C.: Office of Water, April 1998).Google Scholar See also Knopman, Debra S. and Smith, Richard A., “Twenty Years of the Clean Water Act,” Environment 35 (January-February 1993), 17-20, 34–41Google Scholar ; and Council on Environmental Quality, Environmental Quality: Twenty-fifth Anniversary Report (Washington, D.C., 1997), chap. 13Google Scholar.

58. For a brief review of the evidence, see Kraft and Vig, “Environmental Policy from the 1970s to 2000”; Davies and Mazurek, Pollution Control in the United States; and Council on Environmental Quality, Environmental Quality.