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6. Philadelphia City Planning Commission [CPC], Planning Study No. 2: Economic Base Study of the Philadelphia Area (Philadelphia, 08 1949), 34.Google Scholar Also, Urban Land Institute [ULI], Technical Bulletin No. 19: Planned Industrial Districts, Their Organization and Development (Washington, D.C., 1952)Google Scholar; Harris, Richard, Unplanned Suburbs: Toronto's American Tragedy, 1900–1950 (Baltimore, 1996), 51–85.Google Scholar

7. Phillips, “A Proposal for Using City-Owned Land in Strengthening Philadelphia's Industrial Base,” 2. The Commerce Department's focus on plant space and design received social scientific validation during the mid-1950s when an expansive investigation by the University of Pennsylvania's Institute of Urban Studies concluded that “space needs themselves are the most important single factor causing movement and on-site expansion.” Institute for Urban Studies, University of Pennsylvania [IUS], Industrial Land and Facilities for Philadelphia: A Report to the Philadelphia City Planning Commission (Philadelphia, 1956), 42, 70–71.Google Scholar

8. Phillips, “A Program for Industrial Land Development Within the Corporate Limits of Philadelphia,” 1–5, 8–9; idem, “A Proposal for Using City-Owned Land in Strengthening Philadelphia's Industrial Base,” 2–4; idem, “Recommended Method for Assuring Availability of Land for Industrial Development in Philadelphia,” 2, 6; Petshek, The Challenge of Urban Reform, 38.

9. Stevens, Benjamin H., Brackett, Carolyn A., and Coughlin, Robert E., An Investigation of Location Factors Influencing the Economy of the Philadelphia Region; RSRI Discussion Paper No. 12 (Philadelphia, 03 1967)Google Scholar; Schulman, Bruce, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt: Federal Policy, Economic Development, and the T ransformation of the South, 1938–1980 (New York, 1991)Google Scholar; Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis; Cowie, Capital Moves.

10. Edmund N. Bacon to Walter M. Phillips, 8 June 1954 and 2 July 1954, CPC Files, RG 145.2, Box A-6390, F: Land Use-Industrial, 1952–56, City Archives, 1–2; Phillips to Bacon, 25 June 1954, CPC-Files, ibid., and 21 January 1955, Managing Director's Files and Correspondence [MD-FC], RG 61.2, Box A-709, F: CPC 1955, City Archives, 1–8; “Chronology of Industrial Development Program Activities,” December 1955, Phillips Papers, Acc. 527, Box 17, F: Industrial Land Documents, TUUA, 6–18; Phillips, interview by Kirk R. Petshek, 24 March 1965, transcript, Kirk R. Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 5, TUUA, 1,4; Peter Schauffler, interview by Petshek, 13 November 1964, transcript, Petshek Papers, ibid., 1–2; Petshek, The Challenge of Urban Reform, 71–76, 201–3.

11. Frederic R. Mann, “Activity Report[s] to the Mayor,” 18–31 August, 1–14 September, 15–28 September, 29 September–26 October, 24 November–26 December 1957, MD-FC, RG 61.2, Box A-708, F: Confidential-Weekly Reports, City Representative's Office, 1957, City Archives; Chamber of Commerce, “Minutes of Executive Committee Meeting,” 4 November 1957, 1–2; PIDC, “Minutes of Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation Organizational Meeting of Board of Directors,” 26 February 1958, Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 4, F: PIDC, TUUA, 4; Chamber of Commerce of Greater Philadelphia, “Executive Committee Meeting,” 7 October 1957, Petshek Papers, ibid.; Chamber, “Board of Director's Meeting,” 3 and 16 December 1957, Petshek Papers, ibid.; PIDC, “PIDC Looks Back, Looks Ahead” [1961 Annual Report], Free Library of Philadelphia, Government Documents Collection [GDC], Cities P53–1320 1961, 5–6.

12. PIDC, “Minutes of Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation Organizational Meeting,” 4–5; “Wm. F. Kelly Named Head of City Development Corp.,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 26 February 1958.

13. [Keeton Arnett], “Executive Vice President's Report to Board of Directors,” 20 May 1963, Chamber of Commerce Loose Files, Box: 1962–63 A-G, F: Board of Directors, May 1963, Historical Society of Pennsylvania (HSP), 3–4; Chamber of Commerce Advisory Committee to Commission on Human Relations, “Project No. CI-5,” 1962–63, ibid., 1–2.

14. Keeton Arnett, [retirement speech], [June] 1964, Chamber of Commerce Loose Files, Box: 1963–64.A-F, F: Arnett, Keeton; Farewell Speech 1964, HSP, 1.

15. Ted Beatty, interview by Petshek, 14 December 1964, transcript, Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 5, F: [Interviews], TUUA, 7.

16. After narrowly losing the gubernatorial election, Graves established a commercial and industrial real estate business in Oakland “concerned primarily with Urban Renewal and redevelopment.” Richard Graves to Peter Schauffler, 15 April 1958, Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 4, F: PIDC, TUUA; Paul Wilhelm, interview by Walter M. Phillips, 12 August 1976, transcript, Phillips Oral History Project, Box 9, TUUA, 5–6.

17. Chamber of Commerce of Greater Philadelphia, Greater Philadelphia Facts: Business and Civic Statistics, Edition of 1966 (Philadelphia, 1966), 6Google Scholar; Scranton, Philip and Licht, Walter, Work Sights: Industrial Philadelphia, 1890–1950. (Philadelphia, 1986)Google Scholar; Licht, , Getting Work: Philadelphia, 1840–1950. (Philadelphia, 1992), 3–16.Google Scholar

18. This policy reflected Graves's deliberate decision to emphasize the retention of existing Philadelphia firms rather than the attraction of outside companies. Mayor's Economic Advisory Committee [MEAC], “Statement of Criteria for Industrial Park Development at the North Philadelphia Airport,” 9 December 1960, Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 4, F: E.A.C.

19. MEAC, “Summary of Discussion: Private Financing for Redevelopment,” 20 November 1958, Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 4, F: EAC, TUUA, 2; Richard Graves to Robert Tishman, 23 March 1961, Department of Commerce—Industrial Development [DC-ID] Files, RG 64.18, Box A-5193, F: Phila. Industrial Park 1959–62, City Archives, 1–2; Graves, “Memo to PIDC board of directors; Subject: Financing the Proposed Industrial Parks for Small Companies,” 18 March 1960, DC-ID Files, ibid. For the history of IRBs, see Sbragia, Alberta M., Debt Wish: Entr epreneurial Cities, U.S. Federalism, and Economic Development (Pittsburgh, 1996), 163–179CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Marlin, Matthew R., “Industrial Development Bonds at 50: A Golden Anniversary Review,” Economic Development Quar terly 1, no. 4 (11 1987): 391–410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

20. Lester W. Utter, “Memo to Walter Stein, re: Ruling T:R:I-FCD-5, Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation,” 15 July 1959, DC-ID Files, RG 64.18, Box A-5192, F: Internal Revenue Service ‘67, City Archives; Graves, “Memo to PIDC board of directors,” 3–4; Andrew Young, interview by Walter M. Phillips, 12 October 1978, transcript, Phillips Oral History Project, Box 9, TUUA, 2–3; Wilhelm, interview by Phillips, 6.

21. PIDC bore no liability at any stage of the transaction because both the assets of the firm and the building itself were offered as collateral in case of default. PIDC transactions that involved city-owned land relied on the Industrial Land Bank and Industrial Redevelopment Fund (the “revolving fund”). The fund reimbursed the city for all infrastructure costs in “a sum equal to the amount which would have been assessed for such improvements if the land had been privately owned at the time the improvements were made” (the fund would later be reimbursed for these costs from the proceeds of the land sale). The city financed the remaining, nonassessable costs through its capital improvement budget. In combination with the use of private financing, this system limited the city's expenses to these nonassessable infrastructure costs, plus debt service on the bonds used to finance the revolving fund and city contributions to PIDC's operating budget. Michael L. Strong, “1961–1966 Capital Program; Philadelphia Department of Commerce; Industrial Land Development,” July 1960, CCCP Records, Urb 10/XI, Box 482, F: 1961–66 Capital Program Analysis—Industrial Land Development, 4; PIDC, “Outline of Typical Industrial Build-Lease Project with the Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation as Owner, Lessor, and Mortgagor,” n.d. [1959–61], Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 4, F: P.I.D.C., TUUA; Mitchell, Robert Morrow, “Industrial Development Activities in the City of Philadelphia: An Analysis of the Intergovernmental Relationships” (M.A. thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1968), 12–15.Google Scholar

22. Graves's successor, Richard McConnell, pointed out that PIDC did not use the tax exemption if a firm could obtain financing on its own: “if a broker walks in with a triple-A firm like General Motors, why bother? Sure we help them get liaison with the city, with [Licenses and Inspections], Zoning board and so on. We are rendering any kind of service but we won't get too deeply involved with somebody who can get financing and help anywhere if he tries.” Richard McConnell, interview by Kirk R. Petshek, 11 November 1964[?], transcript, Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 5, 9–10.

23. Discussing Industrial Development (or Revenue) Bonds, which operate on the same principals as PIDC's industrial mortgages, Michael F. Marlin notes that “a significant feature of IDB cost savings is that most of the subsidy comes from the federal government while the IDB is issued by a local government that has virtually no associated costs.” Marlin, “Industrial Development Bonds at 50,” 393.

24. This classification is derived from PIDC, “Analysis of Real Property Transactions Financed Through PIDC,” [1975], Greater Philadelphia Partnership [GPP] Records, Acc. 612, Box 12, F: PIDC Annual Report, TUUA, 74–75.

25. Frank G. Binswanger Jr. to Richard J. McConnell, 21 March 1966, DC-ID Files, RG 64.18, Box A-5201, F: Phila. Industrial Park 1963–65, 1966, City Archives, 4; PIDC, “PIDC/1968—Ten Years of Progress in Philadelphia [annual report],” GPC, Box 509–8. TUUA, [2,5]; “Little Ground Left at Phila. Industrial Park,” Philadelphia Inquir er, 3 May 1970, 9; PIDC, “Red Lion Industrial District [promotional pamphlet], [1976], GPC, Box 555–11, TUUA, 1–2; PIDC, “Philadelphia Industrial Complex [promotional pamphlet], n.d. [1976], GPC, Box 555–13, TUUA, 1–2; PIDC, “fifteen years of productive growth: annual report 1972,” Greater Philadelphia Movement [GPM] Records, Acc. 294, Box 6A, F: Garment Industry Development, TUUA, [6,14]; CPC, Issue Paper—Industrial Philadelphia: A Study of Industrial Land Use (Philadelphia, 1990), 6, 16–17, 24.Google Scholar

26. PIDC, “Now There Are 6 PIDC Industrial Districts for Your New Plants in Philadelphia,” [1962], Mayor's Files 1962, RG 60–2.5, Box A-6337, F: Industrial Development Corp., City Archives; Eastwick Project Area Committee [EPAC], “Minutes of the PAC Planning Committee,” 25 January 1973, EPAC Records, Acc. 870, Box 1, F: PAC Info, TUUA, 1; PIDC, “fifteen years of productive growth: annual report 1972”; CPC, Review of the Eastwick Urban Renewal Plan (Philadelphia, 04 1982), 14.Google Scholar In the Eastwick and Franklin-Callowhill areas, PIDC built new industrial facilities on land previously cleared through the RA's federally funded urban renewal program. In general, however, PIDC did not employ urban renewal clearance to obtain additional land or funding for industrial renewal. PIDC officials initially considered such a strategy, but concluded that the technique would be too slow to meet the needs of industrial customers and that, in the case of projects involving only one firm, PIDC projects might not meet urban renewal's public purpose standards. Harold Wise, “Community Renewal Program, City of Philadelphia: Industrial Renewal—Requirements and Outlook for Philadelphia,” December 1964, CPC Files, RG 161.5, Box A-3605, F: CRP-Industrial Renewal, City Archives, 13–26, 39–40; Jan Staebler, interview by Petshek, transcript, Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 5, F: [Interviews], TUUA, 1, 9–11. St. Louis, Cincinnati, Buffalo, and Cleveland had mixed success with industrial renewal programs that relied on urban renewal clearance. Murphy, Maire, “National Policy, Local Initiatives, and Industrial Development in America' s ‘Rustbelt’: Revitalizing Mill Cr eek Valley in St. Louis City, 1950s–1970s,” paper presented at the Policy History Conference,June 2002,Clayton, MissouriGoogle Scholar; Teaford, Rough Road to Renaissance, 149–50, 156–57.

27. Program and Budget Committee, “Promoting Philadelphia Industrially: A Program of the Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation,” received 11 June 1958, Vertical Files, Van Pelt Library, University of Pennsylvania, 1–2; PIDC, “Now There Are 6 PIDC Industrial Districts,” 2; PIDC, “1965/PIDC's $100 Million Milestone Year [annual report],” Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 4, F: PIDC, TUUA, 3.

28. See notes 1, 2, and 4; see also Wilhelm, interview by Phillips, 10.

29. PIDC, “Now There Are 6 PIDC Industrial Districts,” 2; Guess, Joseph M., “Firm Decides to Stay in City; PIDC Helps Finance New Drug Plant,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 23 02 1960Google Scholar; PIDC, “Taken from the Minutes of the Meeting of Members of the PIDC,” 25 May 1960, DC-ID Files, RG 64.18, Box A-5201, F: Frank's Beverages ‘66, City Archives; PIDC, “Agenda and Minutes, Meeting of the executive committee,” 22 October 1963 and 14 July 1964, DC-ID Files, RG 64.18, Box A-5201, F: Macke Variety Vending ‘65, City Archives; PIDC, “1965/PIDC's $100 Million Milestone Year,” 3.

30. Nearly half of the acreage in the Riverside project remained undeveloped because of a poorly designed contract with a private development consortium, as well as an overestimation of the demand for riverfront industrial sites. PIDC Special Riverside Committee, “To: Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation executive committee; Subject: Meeting with Riverside Industrial Center Developers,” 2 February 1965, DC-ID Files, RG 64.18, Box A-5195, F: Riverside Industrial Park '62–'65, City Archives; “Minutes of the Board of Directors Meeting of PIDC,” 21 June 1966, DC-ID Files, ibid.; Young, interview by Phillips, 13–16.

31. PIDC activity extended into other nearby areas that garnered both medium and low rankings in the study. Arthur D. Little, Inc., The Usefulness of Philadelphia' s Industrial Plant: An Appr oach to Industrial Renewal; Repor t to the Philadelphia City Planning Commission (January 1960), 159–66. PIDC, “fifteen years of productive growth; annual report 1972,“ 8.

32. For specific data on residential segregation and lending in Philadelphia, see Bartelt, David W., “Housing the ‘Underclass,’” in The Underclass Debate: Views from History, ed. Katz, Michael B. (Princeton, 1993), 118–157. and esp. 125–37.Google ScholarBerson, Lenora E., Case Study of a Riot: The Philadelphia Stor y (New York, 1966)Google Scholar; Paolantonio, S. A., Frank Rizzo: The Last Big Man in Big City America (Philadelphia, 1993)Google Scholar; Countryman, , “Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia, 1940–1971” (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1998), 301–310, 354–71.Google Scholar

33. Walter D'Alessio, “Memo To: Honorable Frank L. Rizzo, Mayor; Subject: 1972 Activity,“ 10 January 1973, Mayor's Files 1973, RG 60–2.6, Box A-3426, F: PIDC, City Archives, 2; PIDC, 1971: New Directions for PIDC in Philadelphia, Free Library of Philadelphia, GDC, Cities P53–1320 1971, 5.Google Scholar

34. The remaining transactions could not be identified from the records consulted; because of the range of sources used in compilation of the database, there does not appear to be any systematic bias in the type of transactions that are missing. For real estate transaction listings, see Philadelphia Bulletin Clipping Files, TUUA, F: Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation [clippings filed in annual envelopes]. The PIDC staff compiled transaction descriptions for board and executive committee meetings; see DC-ID Files, RG 64.18, Boxes A-5201 and A-5202: Firms Assisted by PIDC, 1965–68. City Archives; Mayor's Files and Correspondence, RG 60–2.4 and RG 60–2.5, PIDC and industrial development annual files, 1959–70. City Archives. Also, PIDC, “PIDC Looks Back, Looks Ahead”; PIDC, “1963: Another Headline Year for PIDC” [Annual Report], Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 4, F: PIDC; PIDC, “1965/PIDC's $100 Million Milestone Year” [annual report]; PIDC, “1967: PIDC's Big Year in New Plant Construction” [annual report], GPC, Box 509–6. TUUA; PIDC, “PIDC/1968—Ten Years of Progress in Philadelphia”; PIDC, “Over 100 new industrial plants for Philadelphia … created by an all-community effort,” n.d. [1967], GPC, Box 871–5. TUUA; Dalton Corporation, 1970 Dalton's Greater Philadelphia Industrial Dir ectory (Philadelphia, 1970)Google Scholar; Dalton's Directory, Dalton's Directory, business and industr y 1980 (Haverford, Pa., 1980)Google Scholar; Dalton's Directory, 1990 Dalton's Philadelphia Metr opolitan Directory Business/Industr y Philadelphia/Suburbs South Jersey/Delaware (Philadelphia, 1990)Google Scholar; Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (various departments), Industrial Directory of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 1956, 1962, 1968, 1972, 1975, 1980 (Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, semiannual).

35. Unless otherwise noted, the analysis that follows is derived from the database of PIDC transactions described in the preceding paragraph of the text and cited in note 34.

36. For city-wide data on firm size, Chamber of Commerce of Greater Philadelphia, Greater Philadelphia Facts: Business and Civic Statistics, Edition of 1966 (Philadelphia, 1966), 16.Google Scholar

37. Schwartz, Edward, “Economic Development as If Neighborhood Mattered,“ in Community and Capital in Conflict: Plant Closings and Job Loss, ed. Raines, John C., Berson, Lenora E., and Gracie, David McI. (Philadelphia, 1982), 272–273.(emphasis in original).Google Scholar

38. Industries are classified by two-digit Standard Industrial Classification codes. In all other SIC classifications, PIDC assisted five or fewer firms. These findings about the two-digit SIC breakdown of PIDC's activities are almost exactly confirmed by a complete set of PIDC summary statistics for the period 1960–74. PIDC, “Analysis of Real Property Transactions Financed Through PIDC,“ [1975], 14; PIDC, “material from review of PIDC operations,” n.d [1975], GPP Records, Acc. 612, Box 12, F: PIDC Annual Report, TUUA, 35.

39. During the 1970s (after the period covered by this analysis), PIDC began a series of projects designed to preserve the apparel industry. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufactur ers 1963 Volume III, Area Statistics [Pennsylvania] (Washington, D.C., 1966), 35Google Scholar; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Business, 1963 Volume 5, Wholesale Trade—Area Statistics [Pennsylvania] (Washington, D.C., 1966), 27Google Scholar; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Manufacturers, Geographic Area Series—Pennsylvania (Washington, D.C., 05 1985), PA 90–91.Google ScholarU.S. Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Wholesale Trade—Pennsylvania (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 11 1984), PA 42–43.Google Scholar

40. Of the 354 transactions included in the database, 242 involved moves between locations within Philadelphia; seventy firms used PIDC aid either to expand on-site or acquire a secondary facility, with no relocation involved; eight newly organized firms started operations in a facility acquired with PIDC assistance; five existing, non-Philadelphia firms relocated to the city with help from PIDC; no information could be found about the original address of twenty-nine firms.

41. PIDC and Philadelphia City Planning Commission (CPC), Survey of Industry 1975 (Philadelphia, [1975]), 39, 108–9.Google Scholar For neighborhood racial composition, CPC, Population Characteristics; 1960 and 1970 Philadelphia Census T racts (Philadelphia, 07 1972), 12–13.Google Scholar

42. It should also be noted that the movement of a firm to one of PIDC's peripheral industrial parks did not automatically mean that it would have no African-American neighbors. The area surrounding the State Road–Torresdale Industrial Park, for example, had a predominantly African-American population, while the Penrose and Eastwick industrial parks lay next to the racially mixed neighborhoods of Eastwick.

43. David W. Bartelt, “Housing the ‘Underclass,’” 118–57. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 195–218, 231–45.

44. West Philadelphia, another section with a majority black population and continuing racial turnover, provided a partial exception to the pattern; it had sixteen move-ins or expansions compared to twenty losses. This was the highest net negative impact anywhere in the city.

45. IUS, Industrial Land and Facilities for Philadelphia, 147, 286.

46. Rast, Joel, Remaking Chicago: The Political Origins of Urban Industrial Change (DeKalb, Ill., 1999).Google Scholar

47. Sullivan, Leon H., Build Brother Build (Philadelphia, 1969), 66–84.Google ScholarLees, Hannah, “The Not-Buying Power of Philadelphia's Negroes,” The Repor ter 24, no. 10 (11 05 1961): 33–34.Google Scholar

48. “Jim Crow's Sweetheart Contract,” Greater Philadelphia Magazine, February 1963; Countryman, Matthew J., “Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia, 1940–1971.” (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1998), 236–266.Google ScholarKotlowski, Dean J., Nixon's Civil Rights: Politics, Principle, and Policy (Cambridge, Mass., 2001), 97–124.Google ScholarSugrue, Thomas J., “The Tangled Roots of Affirmative Action,” American Behavioral Scientist 41, no. 7 (04 1998): 886–897.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

49. Walter D'Alessio, “Memo To: Alec Bastos; Subject: Possible Projects for the Expenditure of Model Cities Economic Development,” 7 May 1973, Mayor's Files 1973, RG 60–2.6, Box A-3426, F: PIDC, City Archives; D'Alessio to Donald Cutler, 29 May 1973, Mayor's Files 1973, ibid.; D'Alessio to Goldie Watson, Director, Model Cities Administration, 1 August 1973, Mayor's Files 1973, ibid.; PIDC, “Proposed Industrial Development Projects of Direct Benefit to Residents of Model Cities,” 1 August 1973, Mayor's Files 1973, ibid.

50. The number of manufacturing and wholesaling firms in Philadelphia fell from 9,130 in 1963 to 3,438 in 1992. Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufacturers 1963 Volume III, 35; Bureau of the Census, Census of Business, 1963 Volume 5, 27; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1992 Census of Manufacturers—Pennsylvania (Washington, D.C., 1994), PA-63Google Scholar; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1992 Census of Wholesale Trade—Pennsylvania (Washington, D.C.:, 10 1994), PA-49–50.Google Scholar

51. Because the industrial directories provide no indication of changes in company names, such as might occur after acquisition or takeover, this analysis may overstate the rate of closure and turnover of PIDC-assisted firms.

52. Adding the remaining employment from 1959 to 1970 transactions that could not be identified would make this percentage even higher. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1992 Census of Manufacturers—Pennsylvania, PA-63.

53. Sbragia, Debt Wish, 163–79. Anthony Zecca to Richard J. McConnell, 5 March 1965, Mayor's Files 1965, RG 60–2.5, Box A-4488, F: Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation, City Archives; A. Joseph Newman Jr., “Battle Lines Forming Here over Industrial Financing,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 6 June 1966.

54. John W. Littleton to Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation, 5 July 1966, DC-ID Files, RG 64.18, Box A-5193, F: PIDC—IRS Rulings ‘67, City Archives; PIDC, “Taken from Minutes of Executive Committee Meeting of PIDC,” 3 August 1966, DC-ID Files, ibid.

55. At a meeting with Under Secretary of the Treasury Joseph W. Barr, a delegation of Philadelphia officials learned that because “cities such as St. Louis and Milwaukee have been unable to get a favorable tax ruling, great pressure was put on I.R.S. to remove PIDC's tax exemption.” In a crucial concession, the IRS allowed PIDC to complete all of its pending transactions, worth at least $19.7 million, under the old tax-exemption rules. PIDC, “Minutes of the Special Meeting of the Board of Directors of the PIDC,” 3 February 1967, DC-ID Files, RG 64.18, Box A-5193, F: PIDC–Internal Revenue Service Rulings '67, City Archives, 1–4. Also, PIDC, “Taken from Minutes of Executive Committee Meeting of PIDC,” 21 March 1967, DC-ID Files, ibid.; Daughen, Joseph R., “PIDC Is Given Permission to Process Loans,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 3 02 1967.Google Scholar

56. Edward G. Bauer to Frank Sullivan, 17 April 1968, Mayor's Files 1968, RG 60–2.5, Box A-4607, F: Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation, City Archives, 1–2.

57. Weir, Politics and Jobs, 8–12, 61–83. O'Connor, Alice, “Swimming Against the Tide: A Brief History of Federal Policy in Poor Communities,” in Dickens, William T. and Ferguson, Ronald F., eds., Urban Problems and Community Development (Washington, D.C., 1999), 103–104.Google ScholarKatz, Michael B., The Undeserving Poor: From the War on Poverty to the War on Welfare (New York, 1989), 91–94.Google Scholar

58. The legislation constrained the value of such transactions to $1 million. Under specific circumstances, this limit could be extended to $5 million. These constraints had little effect, and the use of industrial revenue bonds proliferated until Congress enacted further restrictions in 1982. PIDC, “Minutes of the Meeting of the Executive Committee of the Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation,” 21 May 1968, Mayor's Files 1968, RG 60–2.5, Box A-4607, F: Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation, City Archives, 2, 10–11. PIDC, “Agenda for the Board of Directors Meeting of the PIDC; … Report of Special Loan Committee,” 18 June 1968, Mayor's Files 1968, ibid., 2–6. “State Law Lays Ground for PIDC to Reactivate Development Programs,” Greater Philadelphia Chamber of Commerce News, 7 September 1967, Phillips Papers, Acc. 527, Box 23, F: Pennjerdel—Economic Development, 1965–67. TUUA, 1,8; Byrd, Dorothy, “PIDC Forms New Agency to Fund Projects; Device Will Allow Continued Use of Low-Interest Loans,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 4 08 1968Google Scholar; William R. Spofford to James H. J. Tate, 29 April 1970, Mayor's Files 1970, RG 60–2.5, Box PRSC 42,702, F: PIDC, City Archives; Marlin, “Industrial Development Bonds at 50,” 401.

59. The decline in transactions involving private land and existing buildings during these years was dramatic: these categories accounted for forty-three of the fifty-nine PIDC deals in 1966, but only fourteen in 1967 and one in 1968. “Taken from ‘Minutes of Meeting of Newly Elected Board of Directors of PIDC,” 21 February 1967, 1–2. “State Law Lays Ground for PIDC to Reactivate Development Programs,” 8; D'Alessio, “Memo To: Honorable Frank L. Rizzo, Mayor; Subject: 1972 Activity,” 10 January 1973, 2.

60. D'Alessio, “Memo To: Honorable Frank L. Rizzo, Mayor; Subject: 1972 Activity,” 10 January 1973, 2; Walter D'Alessio, interview by Walter M. Phillips, 7 June 1977, transcript, Phillips Oral History Project, Box 3, 12.

61. Gill, Douglas D., “City Will Woo Service Industries as PIDC Program Gets Under Way,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 24 02 1971.Google Scholar

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64. D'Alessio, interview by Phillips, 6–7.