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5. Skocpol, Theda, “The Limits of the New Deal System and the Roots of Contemporary Welfare Dilemmas,” in The Politics of Social Policy in the United States, ed. Weir, Margaret, Orloff, Ann Shola, and Skocpol, Theda (Princeton, 1988), 293–312Google Scholar ; Lieberman, Robert C., “Race and the Organization of Welfare Policy,” in Classifying by Race, ed. Peterson, Paul E. (Princeton, 1995), 156–87Google Scholar ; Quadagno, Jill, “From Old-Age Assistance to Supplemental Security Income: The Political Economy of Relief in the South, 1935-1972,” in The Politics of Social Policy in the United States, 293–312Google Scholar.

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11. See also Theda Skocpol with Ikenberry, G. John, “The Road to Social Security,” in Social Policy in the United States (Princeton, 1995), 158–59Google Scholar.

12. On the interaction of ideas and institutions, and the role of political learning, see Heclo, Hugh, “Ideas, Interests, and Institutions,” in The Dynamics of American Politics, ed. Dodd, Lawrence C. and Jillson, Calvin (Boulder, Colo., 1994), 366–92Google Scholar . See also Smith, Rogers, “Ideas, Institutions, and Strategic Choice,” Polity 28 (Fall 1995): 135–40Google Scholar.

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18. One public assistance program, Old Age Assistance, was also considered to be the appropriate source of aid for retired wage-earners until the contributory program itself matured. Social Security Board (SSB), Social Security in America: The Factual Background of the Social Security Act as Summarized from Staff Reports to the Committee on Economic Security (Washington, D.C., 1937), 189–90Google Scholar.

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22. Patterson, James T., The New Deal and the States (Princeton, 1969), 3–4Google Scholar ; Reminiscences of Eliot, Thomas H., Oral History Collection of Columbia University (hereafter OHC), 22Google Scholar . It should be noted that the oral history sources used here and below are “reminiscences” through which policy officials, some two to three decades after the creation of the Social Security Act, engaged in retrospective explanations of their behavior. It is possible that these actors had come to justify their prior behavior in light of the effects of the policies in the course of implementation. Therefore, these sources have been used cautiously, most always in combination with other sources that corroborate the evidence they present.

23. Committee on Economic Security (CES), “The Report on Economic Security,” in The Report of the Committee on Economic Security of 1935, ed. National Conference on Social Welfare, 4–5Google Scholar ; Orloff, Ann Shola, “The Political Origins of America's Belated Welfare State,” in The Politics of Social Policy, ed. Orloff, Weir, and Skocpol, , 37–80Google Scholar . See also Reminiscences of Arthur J. Altmeyer, OHC, 105, 187–88Google Scholar ; Skocpol, and Amenta, , “Did Capitalists Shape Social Security?” 572–75Google Scholar.

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25. Just how much the Supreme Court might attempt to restrain national policymaking was not yet clear at this point. In fact, Court decisions in 1934 suggested that a majority of the Court might view the New Deal with sympathy. See Kelly, Alfred H., Harbison, Winfred A., and Belz, Herman, eds., The American Constitution: Its Origins and Development, vol. 2 (New York, 1991), 475Google Scholar . Only in 1935, after the Roosevelt administration's Economic Security Bill had already been sent to Congress, did the Court begin to overturn important pieces of New Deal legislation. The most important examples are Schecter Poultry Co. v. United States 295 U.S. 495 (1935), through which the National Industrial Recovery Act was declared unconstitutional, and United States v. Butler 297 U.S. 1 (1936), in which the Agricultural Adjustment Act suffered the same fate. Because of this timing, scholars must be careful not to overstate the role of Supreme Court scrutiny in shaping decisions by the Committee on Economic Security.

26. “Extract from a Memorandum by Jane Perry Clark on Analysis of Types of Federal State Relationships in Relation to a Program of Economic Security,” Jane Perry Clark file, Records of the Committee on Economic Security (CES), Staff Reports, 1934-35, box 17, Records of the Social Security Administration (SSA), Record Group (RG) 47, National Archives (NA) ; Perkins, , The Roosevelt I Knew, 286–87Google Scholar.

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30. Armstrong, Barbara Nachtrieb, Insuring the Essentials: Minimum Wage Plus Social Insurance—A Living Wage Program (New York, 1932), xvii, 436Google Scholar ; Reminiscences of Eveline Burns, 52.

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37. “Summary of Discussion of the Old Age Security Committee of the Technical Board,” 26 September 1934, CES, General Records of the Executive Director and Staff, box 1, RG 47, NA; Reminiscences of Thomas H. Eliot, 30 ; Altmeyer, Arthur J., The Formative Years of Social Security (Madison, Wis., 1966), 25Google Scholar.

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41. Reminiscences of Barbara Nachtrieb Armstrong, 76, 93, 95.

42. “Outline of Old Age Security Program Proposed by Staff,” 9 November 1934, CES, General Records of the Executive Director and Staff, 1934-35, box 1, RG 47, NA ; Brown, J. Douglas, An American Philosophy of Social Security (Princeton, 1972), 9–16Google Scholar.

43. Letter and attached speech, Edwin Witte to Frances Perkins, 10 November 1934, p. 3, CES, Correspondence Regarding Proposals for the Economic Security Program, 1934-35, box 55, RG 47, NA.

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47. Already, fourteen other nations had enacted old-age insurance plans complete with survivors' insurance, but the CES reported that though such a system was desirable, further investigation was needed before proposing an American counterpart. SSB, Social Security in America, 183, 204.

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57. Memo, From Katharine Lenroot to Mrs. Hopkins, 28 June 1934, box 479, file 0-5-4-10-0, Records of the Children's Bureau, RG 102, NA.

58. Katharine Lenroot to Grace Abbott, 17 August 1934, Abbott Papers, box 54, file la, UC.

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