Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T04:46:14.509Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

A Federal Army, Not a Federalist One: Regime Building in the Jeffersonian Era

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 March 2014

William D. Adler
Affiliation:
Northeastern Illinois University Graduate Center, City University of New York
Jonathan Keller
Affiliation:
Northeastern Illinois University Graduate Center, City University of New York

Abstract

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Donald Critchlow and Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

NOTES

1. Skowronek, Stephen, The Politics Presidents Make: Leadership from John Adams to Bill Clinton (Cambridge, Mass., 1997).Google Scholar

2. Skowronek, Stephen, “Notes on the Presidency in the Political Order,” Studies in American Political Development 1 (1986): 286302(295).Google Scholar

3. Skowronek, The Politics Presidents Make, 27–28.

4. Ibid.

5. Ibid.

6. Plotke, David, Building a Democratic Political Order: Reshaping American Liberalism in the 1930s and 1940s (New York, 1996).Google Scholar

7. Polsky, Andrew J., “‘Mr. Lincoln’s Army’ Revisited: Partisanship, Institutional Position, and Union Army Command, 1861–1865,” Studies in American Political Development 16 (Fall 2002): 176207.Google Scholar

8. Polsky, Andrew J., “Partisan Regimes in American Politics,” Polity 44 (January 2012): 5180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

9. Orren, Karen and Skowronek, Stephen, “Regimes and Regime Building in American Government: A Review of Literature on the 1940s,” Political Science Quarterly 113 (Winter 1998–99): 689702.Google Scholar

10. Cook, Daniel M. and Polsky, Andrew J., “Political Time Reconsidered: Unbuilding and Rebuilding the State Under the Reagan Administration,” American Politics Research 33 (2005): 577605.Google Scholar

11. Nichols, Curt and Myers, Adam S., “Exploiting the Opportunity for Reconstructive Leadership: Presidential Responses to Enervated Political Regimes,” American Politics Research 38 (September 2010): 806–41Google Scholar; Zinman, Donald, “Passing the Torch Through Political Time: Heir Apparent Presidents and the Governing Party,” White House Studies 9 (2009): 5165.Google Scholar

12. Polsky, Andrew J., “The Political Economy of Partisan Regimes: Lessons from Two Republican Eras,” Polity 35 (June 2003): 595612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

13. Skowronek, The Politics Presidents Make, 70.

14. Ibid., 73.

15. Polsky, “Partisan Regimes in American Politics.”

16. Gannon, Kevin M., “Escaping ‘Mr. Jefferson’s Plan of Destruction’: New England Federalists and the Idea of a Northern Confederacy, 1803–1804,” Journal of the Early Republic 21 (Autumn 2001): 413–43.Google Scholar

17. Gannon, “Escaping ‘Mr. Jefferson’s Plan of Destruction,’” 419–24; Wills, Gary, “Negro President”: Jefferson and the Slave Power (New York, 2005).Google Scholar For more on the importance of slavery to the politics of the early republic, see Einhorn, Robin L., “Slavery and the Politics of Taxation in the Early United States,” Studies in American Political Development 14 (Fall 2000): 156–83Google Scholar; and Ericson, David F., “The Federal Government and Slavery: Following the Money Trail,” Studies in American Political Development 19 (Spring 2005): 105–16.Google Scholar

18. Bailey, Jeremy D., Thomas Jefferson and Executive Power (New York, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, chap. 7; Gannon, “Escaping ‘Mr. Jefferson’s Plan of Destruction,’” 421–22. See also Mayer, David N., “‘Necessary and Proper’: West Point and Jefferson’s Constitutionalism,” in Thomas Jefferson’s Military Academy: Founding West Point, ed. McDonald, Robert M. S. (Charlottesville, 2004), 5476Google Scholar, for an alternative understanding of Jefferson’s views on the Constitution.

19. Coakley, Robert W., The Role of Federal Military Forces in Domestic Disorders, 1789–1878 (Washington, D.C., 1988), 69.Google Scholar

20. Ibid., 67, 80–83.

21. Kohn, Richard, Eagle and Sword: The Beginnings of the Military Establishment in America (New York, 1975), 41.Google Scholar

22. Ibid., 40–53.

23. Hendrickson, David C., Peace Pact: The Lost World of the American Founding (Lawrence, Kans., 2003), 211–19.Google Scholar

24. Edling, Max M., A Revolution in Favor of Government: Origins of the U.S. Constitution and the Making of the American State (New York, 2003), esp. 89100 and 115–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

25. Weigley, Russell F., Towards an American Army: Military Thought from Washington to Marshall (New York, 1962)Google Scholar, chaps. 1–3; Kohn, Eagle and Sword.

26. Cress, Lawrence Delbert, Citizens in Arms: Army and Militia in American Society to the War of 1812 (Chapel Hill, 1982), 14.Google Scholar

27. Kohn, Eagle and Sword, 158–70.

28. Ibid., 95–104.

29. Elkins, Stanley and McKitrick, Eric, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republics, 1788–1800 (New York, 1994), 462.Google Scholar

30. Kohn, Eagle and Sword, 164–70; Elkins and McKitrick, The Age of Federalism, 463.

31. Howe, John R. Jr., “Republican Thought and the Political Violence of the 1790’s,” American Quarterly 19 (1967): 147–65.Google Scholar

32. Ibid., 153.

33. Elkins and McKitrick, The Age of Federalism, 587–88.

34. See Mueller, John E., War, Presidents, and Public Opinion (New York, 1973)Google Scholar, for more on this phenomenon.

35. Elkins and McKitrick, The Age of Federalism, 588.

36. Ibid., 589–90; Kohn, Eagle and Sword, 222.

37. Elkins and McKitrick, The Age of Federalism, 595.

38. Kohn, Eagle and Sword, 230–38.

39. Ibid., 223.

40. Elkins and McKitrick, The Age of Federalism, 590–93. For more on the Alien and Sedition Acts, see Stone, Geoffrey R., Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism (New York, 2004).Google Scholar

41. Ron Chernow, Alexander Hamilton (New York, 2004), 564–65.

42. Elkins and McKitrick, The Age of Federalism, 603.

43. Ibid., 662–90.

44. Chernow, Alexander Hamilton, 602; Kohn, Eagle and Sword, 261–62.

45. On the election of 1800, see John Ferling, Adams vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800 (New York, 2004).

46. Polsky, “Partisan Regimes in American Politics.”

47. Cook and Polsky, “Political Time Reconsidered.”

48. Ketcham, Ralph, Presidents Above Party: The First American Presidency, 1789–1829 (Chapel Hill, 1984).Google Scholar

49. Millett, Allan R. and Maslowski, Peter, For the Common Defense: A Military History of the United States of America (New York, 1994), 102–4Google Scholar; Tucker, Robert W. and Hendrickson, David C., Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (New York, 1990), 4142.Google Scholar

50. Crackel, Theodore J., Mr. Jefferson’s Army: Political and Social Reform of the Military Establishment, 1801–1809 (New York, 1987), 13.Google Scholar

51. Thomas Jefferson to Nathanial Macon, 14 May 1801 (from Crackel, Mr. Jefferson’s Army, 38).

52. First Annual Message to Congress, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson Digital Edition, ed. Barbara B. Oberg and J. Jefferson Looney (Charlottesville, 2008). Accessed at http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/TSJN-01-36-02-0034-0003.

53. Jackson, Donald, “Jefferson, Meriwether Lewis, and the Reduction of the United States Army,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 124 (29 April 1980): 9196.Google Scholar

54. Prince, Carl E., “The Passing of the Aristocracy: Jefferson’s Removal of the Federalists, 1801–1805,” Journal of American History 57 (December 1970): 563–75.Google Scholar See also Hunt, Gaillard, “Office-Seeking During Jefferson’s Administration,” The American Historical Review 3 (1898): 270–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar, for details regarding some of those removals. On the broader scholarly dispute about whether Jefferson invented the spoils system, see Marc Landy and Sidney M. Milkis, Presidential Greatness (Lawrence, Kans., 2000), chap. 3, as well as the contrasting view by McDonald, Forrest, The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson (Lawrence, Kans., 1987), 3435.Google Scholar

55. Bailey, Thomas Jefferson and Executive Power, chap. 6.

56. Crackel, Theodore J., “The Military Academy in the Context of Jeffersonian Reform,” in Thomas Jefferson’s Military Academy: Founding West Point, ed. McDonald, Robert M. S. (Charlottesville, 2004), 99117.Google Scholar

57. Cunningham, Noble E., The Process of Government Under Jefferson (Princeton, 1978), 167.Google Scholar

58. Thomas Jefferson to William B. Giles, 23 March 1801, in The Works of Thomas Jefferson, Federal Edition, ed. Paul Leicester Ford (New York, 1904–5).

59. Cunningham suggests that most Republicans quietly recognized the pressures Jefferson faced, but urged that moderation be exercised in removing Federalists in other states, while pushing for widespread removal in their own states. Cunningham, The Process of Government Under Jefferson, 166–67.

60. Thomas Jefferson to Albert Gallatin, 14 August 1801, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson Digital Edition. Accessed at http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/TSJN-01-35-02-0060.

61. White, Leonard D., The Jeffersonians: A Study in Administrative History, 1801–1829 (New York, 1951), 348–51.Google Scholar

62. Thomas Jefferson to Henry Knox, 27 March 1801, in The Works of Thomas Jefferson.

63. Quoted in Carl Russell Fish, The Civil Service and the Patronage (Cambridge, Mass., 1904), 30.

64. Crackel, Mr. Jefferson’s Army, 42–44.

65. For example, see White, The Jeffersonians.

66. Crackel, Mr. Jefferson’s Army.

67. Wood, Gordon S., Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815 (New York, 2009), 291–93.Google Scholar

68. Crackel, Mr. Jefferson’s Army.

69. Crackel, “Jefferson, Politics, and the Army: An Examination of the Military Peace Establishment Act of 1802,” Journal of the Early Republic 2 (Spring 1982): 21–38.

70. Crackel, “Jefferson, Politics, and the Army.”

71. Henry Dearborn to Brigadier General James Wilkinson, 12 May 1801, in National Archives, Records of the Office of the Secretary of War (RG 107), Letters Sent by the Secretary of War Relating to Military Affairs, 1800–1889.

72. Weigley, Towards an American Army.

73. For examples, see Angevine, Robert G., The Railroad and the State: War, Politics, and Technology in Nineteenth-Century America (Stanford, 2004)Google Scholar; Hill, Forest G., Roads, Rails, and Waterways: The Army Engineers and Early Transportation (Norman, Okla., 1957)Google Scholar; Prucha, Francis Paul, Broadax and Bayonet: The Role of the United States Army in the Development of the Northwest, 1815–1860 (Lincoln, 1953)Google Scholar; Shallat, Todd, Structures in the Stream: Water, Science, and the Rise of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Austin, 1994).Google Scholar

74. Crackel, Mr. Jefferson’s Army, 58–60.

75. Ibid., 60–61.

76. Ibid., 71–73.

77. Ibid.

78. Miscellaneous Letters, in National Archives, Records of the Office of the Secretary of War (RG 107), Letters Sent to the President by the Secretary of War, 1800–1863.

79. Crackel, Mr. Jefferson’s Army, 183.

80. Zinman, Donald A., “The Heir Apparent Presidency of James Madison,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 41 (December 2011): 712–26Google Scholar; Zinman, “Passing the Torch Through Political Time.”

81. Wood, Empire of Liberty, 663–64.

82. Skelton, William B., An American Profession of Arms: The Army Officer Corps, 1784–1861 (Lawrence, Kans., 1992), 7276Google Scholar; Samuel J. Watson, “Professionalism, Social Attitudes, and Civil-Military Accountability in the United States Army Officer Corps, 1815–1846” (Ph.D. diss., Rice University, 1996), 136–45.

83. Stagg, J. C. A., Mr. Madison’s War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American Republic, 1783–1830 (Princeton, 1983), 138–55Google Scholar; Stevenson, Charles A., Congress at War: The Politics of Conflict Since 1789 (Washington, D.C., 2007), 38.Google Scholar

84. Hickey, Donald R., “New England’s Defense Problem and the Genesis of the Hartford Convention,” New England Quarterly 50 (December 1977): 587604.Google Scholar

85. Silverstone, Scott A., Divided Union: The Politics of War in the Early American Republic (Ithaca, 2004), chap. 3.Google Scholar

86. Millett and Maslowski, For the Common Defense, 106–8; Zinman, “The Heir Apparent Presidency of James Madison,” 721–23.

87. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 163–66.

88. Polsky, “‘Mr. Lincoln’s Army’ Revisited.”

89. Howe, Daniel Walker, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (New York, 2007), chap. 3.Google Scholar

90. Ibid., 97–111; Watson, “Professionalism, Social Attitudes, and Civil-Military Accountability,” 920; David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, Old Hickory’s War: Andrew Jackson and the Quest for Empire (Baton Rouge, 2003).

91. Skelton, An American Profession of Arms, 117–28; C. Edward Skeen, “Calhoun, Crawford, and the Politics of Retrenchment,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 73 (July 1972): 141–55.

92. Skeen, “Calhoun, Crawford, and the Politics of Retrenchment”; Skelton, An American Profession of Arms, 126–28.

93. Skeen, “Calhoun, Crawford, and the Politics of Retrenchment,” 155.

94. Watson, “Professionalism, Social Attitudes, and Civil-Military Accountability,” 920–27; Howe, What Hath God Wrought, chap. 3.