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34. An English translation can be found as an appendix to Vollman and Winau, “The Prussian Regulation of 1900,” 11.

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41. Blackbourn and Eley, Peculiarities of German History, 190–95 and 221–23.

42. Maehle, “Professional Ethics and Discipline,” 314.

43. Maehle, Doctors, Honour, and the Law, 85–86. Elkeles, “German Debate,” 28. Kater, “Professionalization and Socialization,” 680.

44. Elkeles, “German Debate,” 28.

45. Elkeles, “Medizinische Menschenversuche,” 147–48; Elkeles “Wissenschaft, Medizinethik und gesellschaftliches Umfeld,” 35. See also Winau, Rolf, “Medizin und Menschenversuch: Zur Geschichte des ‘informed consent,’” in Wiesemann, and Frewer, , Medizin und Ethik, 24.Google Scholar

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53. Grodin, “Historical Origins of the Nuremberg Code,” 129.

54. Howard-Jones, “Human Experimentation,” 1436. See also Grodin, “Historical Origins of the Nuremberg Code,” 129.

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58. Howard-Jones, “Human Experimentation,” 1436.

59. “1931 German Guidelines on human experimentation.” See also Sass, “Reichsrundschreiben 1931,” which also reproduces the German text and offers a slightly different translation.

60. Howard-Jones, “Human Experimentation,” 1443.

61. Howard-Jones and Bankowski, Medical Experimentation and the Protection of Human Rights, 66, see also Grodin, “Historical Origins of the Nuremberg Code,” 129: “This document contains almost all of the points subsequently cited in the Nuremberg Code. Some would even argue that the guidelines are even more inclusive and formalistic than the Nuremberg Code in that they demand complete responsibility of the medical profession for carrying out human experimentation,” Howard-Jones, “Human Experimentation,” 1436: “The Nuremberg Code of 1947 comprises no significant advance on the 1931 German Guidelines,” and Sass, “Comparative Models and Goals,” 51: “They were stricter and more detailed than the Nuremberg code of 1947 and the Helsinki Declaration issued in 1964.”

62. Sass, “Comparative Models and Goals,” 54.

63. Howard-Jones, “Human Experimentation,” 1436. This is of course consistent with the argument that they operated more as terms in a contract of employment than as specific regulations.

64. Elkeles, “Medizinische Menschenversuche,” 144: “Um einen Konsens über das moralisch Zulässige zu bekommen, schlägt er eine Diskussion durch Forscher, Ärzte, Juristen und andere gebildete Männer’ vor.” (To arrive at a consensus with regards to what is ethically permissible, he suggests a discussion between researchers, doctors, lawyers, and other educated men.)

65. Peukert, Weimar Republic, 129–46 and 222–30.

66. Elkeles, “Medizinische Menschenversuche,” 135: “Schon in der ersten Phase der Aufarbeitung dieser Ungeheuerlichkeiten wurde klar, dass die Wurzeln der Medizin ohne Menschlichkeit’ jedoch tiefer und historisch früher lagen als im Nationalsozialismus, dass sie, wie Viktor von Weinzäcker es ausdrückt, begünstigt wurden ,durch die Denkweise einer Medizin, welche den Menschen betrachtet wie ein chemisches Molekül oder einen Frosch oder ein Versuchskaninchen.’”

67. Elkeles, “Medizinische Menschenversuche,” 140–41: “Die Einhaltung bestimmter Forschungsrituale wird zu einer Zauberformel, motivierend, exculpierend, rechtfertigend, und macht weitere Erklärungen untergeordnet. Das beste Beispiel findet sich wieder im Bereich der Bakteriologie: Wer sich bei seinen Forschungen auf die Methode, wie sie Robert Koch etabliert hat, beruft, bedarf keiner weiteren Rechtfertigung seines Verfahrens und seiner Ziele. … Gleichzeitig stellt sich der Forschungseleve damit in den Nachfolgerschatten des großen Meisters, in eine als bestätigend und legitimierend empfundene Kontinuität.” See also Sass, “Comparative Models and Goals,” 55: “Guidelines and recommendations requiring formal procedures, e.g., written acknowledgement of informed consent or specific forms for establishing review boards and the issuance of their reports, and the pre-establishment of a set of material values to be protected, such as informed consent or immediate cessation of the experiment or treatment if requested by the research subject or required by the primum non nocere rule, give a higher percentage of responsibility to guiding and recommending agencies. This is especially the case if review committees expressly approve or propose the change of specific procedures. Regulations thus far relieve the individual scientist’s or physician’s responsibility enormously, transforming moral responsibilities into legal or procedural obligations.” See also Peukert, Weimar Republic, 138–40, on the wider context.

68. Frewer, “Entwicklungsprozesse auf dem Weg zur Moral,” 157: “Die dargestellten Entwicklungsprozesse beleuchten den medizinethischen Diskurs von der Weimarer Republik zum Nationalsozialismus und illustrieren die schrittweise Hinwendung der Medizinethik zu Biologismus und generativer Kollektivethik.”

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