1. The Internet lists a wide array of environmental justice groups. See the Ecojustice Network on EcoNet, www.igc.apc.org/envjustice. See also the Center for Health, Environment and Justice, www.essential.org/cchw/cchwinf.html; Environmental Justice Resource Center, www.ejrc.cau.edu; and Environmental Justice Links, www-personal.umich.edu/~jrajzer/nre/links.html.

2. “Environmental racism” is an extension of traditional racism, can be intentional or unintentional, and suggests discrimination in environmental policymaking, enforcement of laws, and in targeting certain communities for toxic-waste disposal sites and polluting indus-tries.

3. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines environmental justice as the “fair treatment for people of all races, cultures, and incomes, regarding the development of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.” See “About Environmental Justice” on the Internet at www.epa.gov/swerosps/ej/aboutej.htm. See also definitions discussed in a course offered at the School of Natural Resources, University of Michigan on the Internet, www.personal.umich.edu/~jtaj2er/nre/defintions.html; Bryant, Bunyan, ed., Environmental Justice: Issues, Policies, and Solutions (Washington, D.C., 1995), 5–6.Google Scholar

4. Foreman, Christopher H. Jr, The Promise and Peril of Environmental Justice (Washington, D.C., 1998), 11.Google Scholar

5. This section draws heavily on Melosi, Martin V., “Equity, Eco-racism, and the Environ-mental Justice Movement” (paper delivered at the World History Association Meeting, Aspen, Colorado, 1994)Google Scholar, and idem, “Equity, Ecoracism, and Environmental History,” in Char Miller and Hal Rothman, eds., Out of the Woods: Essays in Environmental History (Pittsburgh, 1997), 194-211.

6. See Dobson, Andrew, Justice and the Environment: Conceptions of Environmental Sustainabiliry and Theories of Distributive Justice (New York, 1998), 18CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Bullard, Robert D., “Race and Environmental Justice in the United States,” Yale Journal of International Law 18 (1993): 325Google Scholar ; , Bullard, ed., Confronting Environmental Racism: Voices from the Grassroots (Boston, 1993), 9Google Scholar.

7. DiChiro, Giovanna, “Nature as Community: The Convergence of Environmental and Social Justice,” in Cronon, William, ed., Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature (New York, 1996), 303.Google Scholar

8. The CRJ was founded in 1963 after the assassination of black activist Medgar Evers, church bombings in Birmingham, Alabama, and other anti-civil rights activities.

9. See Grossman, Karl, “Environmental Racism,” Crisis 98 (April 1991): 17.Google Scholar

10. McGurty, Eileen Maura, “From Nimby to Civil Rights: The Origins of the Environmental Justice Movement,” Environmental History 2 (July 1997): 318. See also 301-2, 305-7, 309-14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

11. Quoted in Grossman, Karl, “The People of Color Environmental Summit,” in Bullard, Robert D., ed., Unequal Protection: Environmental Justice and Communities of Color (San Francisco, 1994), 272.Google Scholar

12. A variety of goals were set forth at the meeting, including the less radical call for sustainable development as it pertained to the disadvantaged presented by architect and urban planner Carl Anthony. Anthony is president of the Earth Island Institute and director of its Urban Habitat Program, founded in 1989. While committed to the notion that socio-economic and environmental problems are interconnected, he has taken a particularly pragmatic stand on implementing environmental justice programs through the development of ecologically sustainable communities in the San Francisco Bay Area. He also has argued that African Americans could benefit from a greater environmental awareness and has urged them not to become isolated from the stewardship of the environment. See “Speak Out,” Internet, www.vida.com/speakout/People/Carl Anthony.html; “Urban Habitat Program,” Internet, www.igc.apc.org/uhp; Anthony, Carl, “Why African-Americans Should Be Environmentalists,” Earth Island Journal (Winter 1990): 43–44Google Scholar.

13. Mowrey, Marc and Redmond, Tim, Not in Our Backyard: The People and Events That Shaped America's Modem Environment Movement (New York, 1993), 435–36.Google Scholar

14. Szasz, Andrew, Ecopopulism: Toxic Waste and the Movement for Environmental Justice (Minneapolis, 1994), 5.Google Scholar

15. Later renamed the Center for Health, Environment and Justice and based in Falls Church, Virginia.

16. Gibbs, Lois Marie, “Celebrating Ten Years of Triumph,” Everyone's Backyard 11 (February 1993): 2.Google Scholar

17. , Szasr, Ecopopulism, 6, 69–72.Google Scholar See also “The Grassroots Movement for Environmental Justice,” Everyone's Backyard 11 (February 1993): 3Google Scholar.

18. Mazmanian, Daniel and Morell, David, Beyond Superfailure: America's Toxics Policy for the 1990s (Boulder, Colo., 1992), 181.Google Scholar See also Rabe, Barry G., Beyond NIMBY: Hazardous Waste Siting in Canada and the United States (Washington, D.C., 1994), 2–3Google Scholar ; Arrandale, Tom, “When the Poor Cry NIMBY,” Governing 6 (September 1993): 36–41Google Scholar.

19. Gottlieb, Robert, “Beyond NEPA and Earth Day. Reconstructing the Past and Envisioning a Future for Environmentalism,” Environmental History Review 19 (Winter 1995): 10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

20. Hamilton, Cynthia, “Coping with Industrial Exploitation,” , Bullard, ed., Conjronting Environmental Racism, 63.Google Scholar

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22. Capek, Stella M., “The ‘Environmental Justice’ Frame: A Conceptual Discussion and an Application,” Social Problems 40 (February 1993): 8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

23. Bryant, Bunyan and Mohai, Paul, eds., Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards: A Time for Discourse (Boulder, Colo., 1992), 1–2.Google Scholar

24. For example, civil rights law was used in 1993 as a basis for filing the first environ-mental justice complaints with EPA. It also was used in other litigation on the state level as early as 1979 in Houston, Texas. Courts have hesitated to overturn locally undesirable land uses on the basis of environmental justice concepts, however. See Kevin, Daniel, “‘Environmental Racism’ and Locally Undesirable Land Uses: A Critique of Environmental Justice Theories and Remedies,” Villanova Environmental Law Journal 8 (1997): 145Google Scholar ; Gay, Kathlyn, Pollution and the Potverless: The Environmental Justice Movement (New York, 1994), 106Google Scholar.

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26. The Sierra Club, National Wildlife Federation, Audubon Society, Environmental Defense Fund, Environmental Policy Institute/Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, and so forth.

27. See Alston, Dana A., ed., we Speak for Ourselves: Social Justice, Race, and Environment (Washington, D.C., 1990), 3Google Scholar ; “From the Front Lines of the Movement for Environmental Justice,” Social Policy 22 (Spring 1992): 12Google Scholar ; Bullard, Robert D., “Anatomy of Environmental Racism and the Environmental Justice Movement,” in , Bullard, ed., Confronting Environmental Racism, 22–23Google Scholar ; Bryant, Pat, “Toxics and Racial Justice,” Social Policy 20 (Summer 1989): 51Google Scholar ; , Bryant and , Mohai, eds., Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards, 6Google Scholar.

28. Kreger, Janet, “Ecology and Black Student Opinion,” Journal of Environmental Education 4 (Spring 1973): 30–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; , Anthony, “Why African Americans Should Be Environmentalists,” 43–44Google Scholar ; Mohai, Paul, “Black Environmentalism,” Social Science Quarterly 71 (December 1990): 744.Google Scholar See also Buttel, Frederick H. and Flinn, William L., “Social Class and Mass Environmental Beliefs: A Reconsideration,” Environment and Behavior 10 (September 1978): 433–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; , Alston, ed., We Speak for Ourselves, 3Google Scholar ; Taylor, Dorceta, “Can the Environmental Movement Attract and Maintain the Support of Minorities?” in , Bryant and , Mohai, eds., Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards, 38Google Scholar ; idem, “Blacks and the Environment: Toward an Explanation of the Concern and Action Gap Between Blacks and Whites,” Environment and Behavior 21 (March 1989): 175–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

29. Davis, Henry Vance, “The Environmental Voting Record of the Congressional Black Caucus,” in , Bryant and , Mohai, eds., Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards, 55–63Google Scholar ; “Beyond White Environmentalism,” Environmental Action (January-February 1990): 19, 27Google Scholar.

30. See “Do Environmentalists Care About Poor People?” U.S. News and World Report 96 (2 April 1984): 52Google Scholar ; “1997 National Environmental Scorecard,” Internet, http://scorecard.lcv.org/introduction.htm; “The Unofficial 106th Congress U.S. Congressional Black Caucus Member Directory,” Internet, www.famu.edu/cbc/cbcdir.html; “The 105th Congress, U.S. Congressional Black Caucus Member Directory,” Internet, www.freenet.tlh.fl.us/tacotlbm/cbcdir.html.

31. National Conference of Black Mayors-Environmental Justice, www.rtk.net/mayors/enviro.html, p. 2.

32. Mohai, Paul and Bryant, Bunyan, “Is There a ‘Race’ Effect on Concern for Environ-mental Quality?” Public Opinion Quarterly 62 (Winter 1998): 475, 500-502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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34. See Lee, Charles, “Toxic Waste and Race in the United States,” in , Bryant and , Mohai, eds., Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards, 10-16, 22–27Google Scholar ; Mealy, Rosemari, “Charles Lee on Environmental Racism,” We Speak for Ourselves, 8Google Scholar ; Paul Mohai and Bunyan Bryant, “Environmental Racism: Reviewing the Evidence,” in ibid., 163-69; , Grossman, “Environmental Racism,” 16–17Google Scholar ; , Grossman, “From Toxic Racism to Environmental Justice,” E: The Environmental Magazine 3 (May-June 1992): 30–32Google Scholar ; Russell, Dick, “Environmental Racism,” Amicus Journal 11 (Spring 1989): 22–25Google Scholar ; , Bryant, “Toxics and Racial Justice,” 49–50Google Scholar.

35. According to Daniel Kevin, an environmental analyst at the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, environmental justice advocates have “dominated that portion of law review literature addressing environmental justice issues.” See , Kevin, “‘Environmental Racism’ and Locally Undesirable Land Uses,” 122Google Scholar.

36. For arguments making race the core issue in siting toxic facilities, see Godsil, Rachel D., “Remedying Environmental Racism,” Michigan Law Review 90 (November 1991): 397–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; , Bullard, Confronting Environmental Racism, 10–13, 18, 21.Google Scholar For a listing of empirical studies of environmental disparities by income and race in the United States, see Goldman, Benjamin A., Not Just Prosperity: Achieving Sustainabiliry with Environmental Justice (Washington, D.C., 1993), 5–6Google Scholar.

37. See Been, Vicki, “Market Forces, Not Racist Practices, May Affect the Siting of Locally Undesirable Land Uses,” in Petrikin, Jonathan S., ed., Environmental Justice (San Diego, 1995), 38.Google Scholar See also “What's Fairness Got to Do with It?” Environmental Justice and the Siting of Locally Undesirable Land Uses,” Cornell Law Review 78 (September 1993): 1014–15, 1018-24Google Scholar ; , Been, “Locally Undesirable Land Uses in Minority Neighborhoods: Disproportionate Siting or Marketing Dynamics?” Yale Law Journal (April 1994): 1386, 1406.Google Scholar See also Lazarus, Richard J., “Pursuing ‘Environmental Justice’: The Distributional Effects of Environmental Protection,” Northuestern University Law Review 87 (1993): 796Google Scholar ; Anderton, Douglas L. et al., “Environmental Equiry: The Demographics of Dumping,” Demography 31 (May 1994): 229CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; , Kevin, “‘Environmental Racism’ and Locally Undesirable Land Uses,” 133-38, 145–50Google Scholar.

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39. Bullard, Robert D., “Environmental Racism and ‘Invisible’ Communities,” West Virginia Law Review 96 (1994): 1037.Google Scholar

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41. See Warner, David and Worsham, James, “The EPA's New Reach,” Nation's Business (October 1998): 13–19.Google Scholar

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44. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Justice Initiatives, 1993 (Washington, D.C., February 1994).Google Scholar See also “A Skeptic Scrutinizes Environmental Justice,” Brookings 8 (Winter 1998): 5Google Scholar.

45. See EPA's website on the Internet—www.epa.gov—for an extensive listing of federal environmental justice programs and initiatives.

46. , Kevin, “‘Environmental Racism’ and Locally Undesirable Land Uses,” 129.Google Scholar

47. Texas Environmental Almanac, Internet, www.tec.org/almanac/enjustice.html, p. 1.

48. According to Samuel P. Hays, conservation did not arise from a broad popular movement or focused narrowly on private corporations, but from a scientific movement centered in the federal government. See Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (New York, 1972; orig. pub. 1959)Google Scholar.

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56. See Melosi, Martin V., Coping with Abundance: Energy and Environment in Industrial America (New York, 1985), 296–97.Google Scholar See also Caulfield, Henry P., “The Conservation and Environmental Movements: A Historical Analysis,” in Lester, James P., ed., Environmental Politics and Policy: Theories and Evidence (Durham, N.C., 1990), 14, 19, 25, 39–40Google Scholar.

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70. Gelobter, Michel, “Toward a Model of ‘Environmental Discrimination,’” in , Bryant and , Mohai, eds., Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards, 64–73.Google Scholar For a contrary view, see , Mohai and , Bryant, “Environmental Racism: Reviewing the Evidence,” 164Google Scholar.

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82. , DiChiro, “Nature as Community: The Convergence of Environmental and Social Justice,” 303.Google Scholar

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