^1. The historical section that launches this essay has been adapted from my publications: The Toadstool Millionaires: A Social History of Patent Medicines in America before Federal Regulation (Princeton, 1961)Google Scholar; The Medical Messiahs: A Social History of Health Quackery in Twentieth-Century America (updated edition: Princeton, 1992)Google Scholar; “From Hooper to Hohensee,” Journal of the American Medical Association 204 (April 1, 1968): 100–104Google Scholar; “American Health Quackery: AnHistorical View,” Georgia Journal of Science 38 (1980): 33–40Google Scholar; “The Foolmaster Who Fooled Them,” Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 53 (1980): 555–66.Google Scholar

^2. King, Willis P., Quacks and Quackery in Missouri (St. Louis, 1882), 6.Google Scholar

^3. Bella C. Landauer Collection, The New York Historical Society.

^4. James Luther Slayden of Texas, Congressional Record, 59th Cong., 1st sess.,June 22, 1906,8987Google Scholar; Young, James Harvey, “Pe-Ru-Na: A Catarrh Cure from Columbus,” Timeline 12 (November-December 1995): 2–17.Google ScholarPubMed

^5. Toronto Star cited in Cramp, Arthur J., Nostrums and Quackery and Pseudo-Medicine (Chicago, 1936), 197.Google Scholar

^6. Adams's series appeared in Collier's between October 7, 1905, and February 17, 1906. It was published in book form as The Great American Fraud (Chicago, 1906).Google Scholar

^7. Young, James Harvey, “Arthur Cramp: Quackery Foe,” Pharmacy in History 37 (1995): 176–82.Google ScholarPubMed

^8. Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906, 34 Stat. 768, and Sherley Amendment, August 23, 1912, 37 Stat. 416.

^9. Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England (Boston, 1853), I, 83.Google Scholar

^10. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, June 25, 1938, 52 Stat. 1040. The best study of the securing of this legislation is Jackson, Charles O., Food and Drug Legislation in the New Deal (Princeton, 1970).Google Scholar

^11. The Kefauver-Harris Amendments, 76 Stat. 78. Studies of the enactment of this law are Harris, Richard, The Real Voice (New York, 1964)Google Scholar, and McFadyen, Richard, “Estes Kefauver and the Drug Industry,” Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1973)Google Scholar. The FTC statute was the Wheeler-Lea Act, 52 Stat. 111.

^12. Food and Drug Administration Annual Report, 1971, p. 26; 1972, 181–82; Young, James Harvey, American Self-Dosage Medicines: An Historical Perspective (Lawrence, Kan., 1974), 51–52.Google Scholar

^13. Welch, Jean S., “Legislation Affecting Manpower,” American Pharmacy 20 (September 1980): 22.Google Scholar

^14. Podolsky, Doug, “Questionable Medicine,” U.S. News & World Report, May 15, 1995, 101–5.Google Scholar

^15. David Kessler, Remarks to the Food and Drug Law Institute, December 12, 1995.

^16. Young, The Medical Messiahs, 137–42, 260–81.

^17. Ibid., 333–59; Barrett, Stephen and Herbert, Victor, The Vitamin Pushers (Amherst N.Y., 1994).Google Scholar

^18. James Cook, New York Post series, May 20-June 2, 1957.

^19. Young, The Medical Messiahs, 360–89.

^20. Ibid., 390–407.

^21. Ibid., 421–22.

^22. Levin, Harry, “The Great Good Place,” New York Review of Books, March 6, 1980, 47–49.Google Scholar

^23. Singer, Barry and Benassi, Victor A., “Occult Beliefs,” American Scientist 69 (January-February 1981): 49–55.Google Scholar

^24. Kremen, Bennett and Collier, Peter, “Unrequired Reading: East and West,” New York Times Book Review, February 15, 1970, 5, 24, 26.Google Scholar

^25. Vachon, Brian, “Witches Are Rising,” Look, August 24, 1971, 40–44.Google Scholar

^26. Cited in Wolcott, James, “Mod Apostle,” New York Review of Books, November 22, 1979, 11–12.Google Scholar

^27. Sagan on MacNeil/Lehrer News Hour, PBS, February 9, 1983; William Celis 3d, “Science I.Q. of Americans Is Not O.K., Survey Shows,” New York Times, April 21, 1994.

^28. Burnham, John C., How Superstition Won and Science Lost (New Brunswick, N.J., 1987).Google Scholar

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^30. Leff, David, “Four Wondrous Weeks of Science and Medicine in the Amazing, Incredible Supermarket Press,” National Association of Science Writers Newsletter 2 (1980), 3.Google Scholar

^31. Tierney, James E. testimony, Quackery: A $10 Billion Scandal, Hearings before the Subcommittee on Health and Long-Term Care of the Select Committee on Aging, House of Representatives (98th Cong., 2d sess.,1984),178Google Scholar; Ramirez, Anthony, “A Crackdown on Phone Marketing,” New York Times, February 10, 1995Google Scholar; NBC Today Show, February 26, 1996.

^32. Cappasso, Tony, “Cyber Cures?” The State Journal-Register, Springfield, Ill., February 4, 1996Google Scholar; Baig, Edward, “The Medical Hot Line in Your PC,” Business Week, February 20, 1995, 101–2.Google Scholar

^33. Hamlin, Suzanne, “Diverse and Pricey Newsletters Flooding Mailboxes,” New York Times, August 9, 1995Google Scholar; Marian Burros, “A New Goal Beyond Organic: Clean Food,” ibid., February 7, 1996.

^34. Cassileih, Barrie R. et al. , “Contemporary Unorthodox Treatments in Cancer Medicine,” Annals of Internal Medicine 101 (1984): 105–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Robins, William, “Doctors Urge Campaign Against AIDS Quackery,” New York Times, March 16, 1988.Google Scholar

^35. Victor Herbert testimony, Quackery: A $10 Billion Scandal, 1984 House Hearings.

^36. Barnhill, William, “Panacea or Poison? Unproven Remedies under Surveillance,” Arthritis Today 6 (January-February): 30–31.Google Scholar

^37. Petersen, James C. and Markle, Gerald E., “Expansion of Conflict in Cancer Controversies,” Research in Social Movements: Conflicts and Change 4 (1981): 151–69Google Scholar; Young, James Harvey, “Laetrile in Historical Perspective,” in Young, American Health Quackery: Collected Essays (Princeton, 1992), 205–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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^39. Young, James Harvey, “AIDS and Deceptive Therapies,” in Young, American Health Quackery, 256–85.Google Scholar

^40. Scott, Janny and Simross, Lynn, “AIDS: Underground Options—The Search for Hope,” Los Angeles Times, August 16, 1987.Google Scholar

^41. “Statement of Representative Charles E. Schumer, D-NY[,] Chairman, House Subcommittee on Crime and Criminal Justice[,] Oversight Hearing on Health Care Fraud: AIDS Fraud—Deceit, Dollars and Despair[,] May 27, 1993.”

^42. Don Aird to John Swann, July 5,1995, History Office, Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, Md.

^43. Victor Herbert testimony, Quackery: A $10 Million Scandal, 1984 House Hearing; Barrett and Herbert, The Vitamin Pushers.

^44. Young, The Medical Messiahs, 350–54.

^45. Ibid., 205–8, 338–59.

^46. Ibid., 446–49; Young, James Harvey, “The Agile Role of Food: Some Historical Reflections,” in Hathcock, John A. and Coon, Julius, eds., Nutrition and Drug Interrelations (New York, 1978), 1–18.Google Scholar

^47. Hopkins, Harold, “Regulating Vitamins and Minerals,” FDA Consumer 10 (July-August 1976): 10–11Google ScholarPubMed; FDA Talk Paper, 1976

^48. Barrett, Stephen, “Assault on FDA Continues,” Nutrition Forum 16 (May/June 1993): 26.Google Scholar

^49. Blumenthal, Mark, “The FDA Rejection,” HerbalGram, no. 26 (Winter 1992): 23, 41.Google Scholar

^50. Food and Drug Administration, Dietary Supplements Task Force Final Report, May 1992.Google Scholar

^51. Barrett and Herbert, The Vitamin Pushers, 430–35.

^52. Barrett, Stephen, “Supplement Bill Passes,” Nutrition Forum, 12 (January-February 1995): 9–11.Google Scholar

^53. “The Snake Oil Protection Act,” New York Times, October 5, 1993.

^54. Statement by David A. Kessler … before the Subcommittee on Health and the Environment, Committee on Energy and Commerce, United States House of Representatives, July 29, 1993.

^55. Food and Drug Administration, Unsubstantiated Claims and Documented Health Hazards in the Dietary Marketplace, July 1993.

^56. FDA News Release, December 29, 1993; Burros, Marian, “Eating Well,” New York Times, December 15, 1993.Google Scholar

^57. Barrett and Herbert, The Vitamin Pushers, 433.

^58. Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994, An Act to amend the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act to establish standards with respect to dietary supplements, October 25, 1994 108 Stat. 4325; Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994, [FDA summary], December 1, 1995; “Herbal Roulette,” Consumer Reports 60 (1995): 698–705Google Scholar; “NIH Office of Dietary Supplements Research,” October 27, 1995; “FDA Published Dietary Supplement Rules,” January 2, 1996.

^59. Alternative Medicine: Expanding Medical Horizons (Washington, D.C., [1995]), 185–86.Google Scholar

^60. Ibid., vii.

^61. Trachtman, Paul, “NIH Looks at the Implausible and the Inexplicable,” Smithsonian 25 (September 1994): 110–23Google Scholar; Budiansky, Stephen, “Cures or ‘Quackery’?” U.S. News & World Report, July 17, 1995, 48–51.Google Scholar

^62. Alternative Medicine, Hearing before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, United States Senate (103d Cong., 1st sess.),June 24, 1993(Washington, D.C., 1993), 1–2Google Scholar; “Office of Science Policy and Legislation, Unconventional Medical Practices, FY 1992, Activities and Plans.”

^63. Ibid., 95–107; Margaret Mason, “Health Quest,” Washington Post, June 26, 1992; Budiansky, Stephen, “Cures or ‘quackery’?” U.S. News & World Report, July 17, 1995, 48–51.Google Scholar

^64. Ibid.; Alternative Medicine (Hearing), 2–4.

^65. Bryant, Jim, “NIH Panel Reviews ‘Unconventional’ Medical Practices,” The NIH Record 44 (July 7, 1992): 1Google Scholar, 6; Barrett, Stephen, “‘Alternative’ Therapy Buzzword for the ‘90s,” Nutrition Forum 10 (January-February 1993): 1–2Google Scholar; Barrett and Herbert, The Vitamin Pushers, 371.

^66. Angier, Natalie, “Where the Unorthodox Gets a Hearing at N.I.H.,” New York Times, March 16, 1993Google Scholar. Jacobs's career is also sketched in Achirov, Marilyn and Kramer, Linda, “Medicine Man,” People 39 (April 12, 1993): 95–97Google Scholar, and in McLellan, Diana, “Medicine Man,” Washingtornian 23 (May 1993): 46–47, 124–25.Google Scholar

^67. Trachtman, “NIH Looks at the Implausible and the Inexplicable,” 121.

^68. McLellan, “Medicine Man,” 46–47, 124–25.

^69. Trachtman, “NIH Looks at the Implausible and the Inexplicable,” 115.

^70. Toufexis, Anastasia, “Dr. Jacobs' Alternative Mission,” Time, March 1, 1993, 43–44.Google Scholar

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^72. Ibid., 117–19.

^73. Bryant, “NIH Panel Reviews ‘Unconventional’ Medical Practices,” 8.

^74. Alternative Medicine (Hearing), 105–6; Trachtman, “NIH Looks at the Implausible and the Inexplicable,” 117; Silber, Kenneth, “Alternative Medicine Agency Can't Bridge Gap,” Washington Times, December 8, 1994.Google Scholar

^75. Alternative Medicine (Hearing), 116–17, 134.

^76. McLellan, “Medicine Man,” 125.

^77. Silber, “Alternative Medicine Agency Can't Bridge Gap.”

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^82. Ibid., 117–18.

^83. NIH OAM Grant Recipients, October 6, 1993.

^84. Alternative Medicine (Hearing), 7–12; Marshall, Eliot, “The Politics of Alternative Medicine,” Science 265 (September 30, 1994), 2000–2002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Silber, “Alternative Medicine Agency Can't Bridge Gap.”

^85. Alternative Medicine (Hearing), 110; Regan, Mary Beth, “Will a Cup of Cow's Whey Keep the Doctor Away?” Business Week, December 12, 1994, 96.Google Scholar

^86. Editorial, “Offbeat Therapies Go to Washington,” Los Angeles Times, October 17, 1994; Regan, “Will a Cup of Cow's Whey Keep the Doctor Away?”

^87. Rasso, Jack, “The Three Faces of Medical Unreason,” Nutrition Forum 11 (September-October 1994): 43Google Scholar; Marshall, “The Politics of Alternative Medicine.”

^88. Ibid.; Angier, Natalie, “U.S. Head of Alternative Medicine Quits,” New York Times, August 1, 1994Google Scholar; Budiansky, “Cures or ‘Quackery’?”; Silber, “Alternative Medicine Agency Can't Bridge Gap.”

^89. Budiansky, “Cures or ‘Quackery’?”

^90. Angier, “U.S. Head of Alternative Medicine Quits.”

^91. Marshall, “The Politics of Alternative Medicine.”

^92. “Offbeat Therapies Go to Washington.”

^93. “OAM Director Outlines Office Mission and Accomplishments,” Complementary and Alternative Medicine at the NIH 2 (December 1995): 1, 4–5.Google Scholar

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^95. Wayne B. Jonas, “Remarks to the D.C. Science Writer's Association,” November 2, 1995.

^96. “AM Advisory Council Meets New OAM Staff and Reviews Progress,” Complementary and Alternative Medicine at the NIH 2 (December 1995): 1, 6–7.Google Scholar

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^99. “OAM Funds Eight Research Centers to Evaluate Alternative Treatments,” Complementary and Alternative Medicine at the NIH 2 (December 1995): 2, 8.Google Scholar

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