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^{Page 404 note 1} Welch, Claude E., ‘Preatorianism in Commonwealth West Africa’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 10, 2, 07 1972, p. 219.Google Scholar

^{Page 404 note 2} Ibid. p. 205.

^{Page 404 note 3} Cited in Mazrui, Ali A. and Tidy, Michael, Nationalism and New States in Africa from about 1935 to the Present (Nairobi, Ibadan, and London, 1984), p. 257.Google Scholar

^{Page 405 note 1} Feit, Edward, ‘The Rule of the “Iron Surgeons”:military government in Spain and Ghana’, in Comparative Politics, July 1969, p. 486.Google Scholar

^{Page 405 note 2} Huntington, Samuel P., The Soldier and the State: the theory and practice of civil–military relations (New York, 1957), p. 63.Google Scholar

^{Page 405 note 3} May, Clifford, ‘The Rise of the Warrior Class: Africa's men in khaki are often a law unto themselves’, in The New York Times, 6 October 1985.Google Scholar

^{Page 406 note 1} Nyerere, Julius, ‘The Second Scramble’ Speech, 5 August 1961,Google Scholar cited in Mazrui, Ali A., Violence and Thought: essays on social tensions in Africa (London, 1969), p. 30.Google Scholar

^{Page 406 note 2} See Nkrumah, Kwame, Revolutionary Path (New York, 1973), p. 225.Google Scholar

^{Page 406 note 3} Nkrumah, Kwame, Summit, O.A.U., 1963,Google Scholar quoted in ibid. p. 241.

^{Page 406 note 4} Hamilton, Alexander, Madison, James, and Jay, John, The Federalist (London, 1961 edn.), p. 50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{Page 406 note 5} See West Africa (London), 2793, 19–25 12 1970, p. 1469.Google Scholar

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^{Page 407 note 1} See Batsa, Kofi, The Spark: from Kwame Nkrumah to Limann (London, 1985), p. 64.Google Scholar

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^{Page 407 note 3} See Mazrui, , Violence and Thought, p. 33.Google Scholar

^{Page 407 note 4} Parti démocratique de Guinée committees were created in the army, as well as in the militia, and solders were encouraged to apply for posts held by civilians, and vice versa, See West Africa, 2696, 1 February 1969, p. 138;Google Scholarand Mazrui, and Tidy, , op. cit. pp. 258–9.Google Scholar

^{Page 407 note 5} West Africa, 2695, 25 January 1969, p. 108.

^{Page 407 note 6} Ibid.

^{Page 408 note 1} Cited in Mazrui, and Tidy, , op. cit. pp. 257–8.Google Scholar

^{Page 408 note 2} Mazrui, , Violence and Thought, p. 27.Google Scholar

^{Page 408 note 3} In December 1982, 8 army officers attempted to use a British naval vessel and 6 Tanzaian jet fighters to topple Nyerere. The New York Times, 23 January 1983 and 29 December 1985.

^{Page 408 note 4} Ibid. 4 and 6 April 1984.

^{Page 408 note 5} See Brook, James, ‘Franch and Fromage: French are friends again’,Google Scholar in ibid. 7 10 1987.

^{Page 408 note 6} Ibid.

^{Page 408 note 7} Cited in ibid.

^{Page 409 note 1} Mazrui, and Tidy, , op. cit. p. 258.Google Scholar

^{Page 409 note 2} See Decalo, Samuel, ‘Military Coups and Military Régimes in Africa’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, II, 1 03 1973, p. 112.Google Scholar

^{Page 409 note 3} Ibid. 113.

^{Page 409 note 4} First, Ruth, The Barrel of a Gun: political power in Africa and the coup d'état (London and New York, 1970), p. 12.Google Scholar

^{Page 409 note 5} Decalo, , loc. cit. p. 119.Google Scholar

^{Page 410 note 1} Price, Robert, ‘Military Officers and Political Leadership: the Ghanaian case’, in Comparative Politics, April 1971, p. 364.Google Scholar

^{Page 410 note 2} Ocran, A. K. A., A Myth Is Broken (London, 1968), pp. 28fn. and 41–3.Google Scholar

^{Page 410 note 3} Lofchie, Michael F., ‘The Uganda Coup – Class Action by the Military’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 10, 1, 05 1972, p. 24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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^{Page 410 note 5} Price, Robert M., ‘A Theoretical Approach to Military Rule in New States: reference group theory and the Ghanaian case’, in World Politics (Princeton), XXIII, 3 04 1971, p. 425.Google Scholar For a general picture of the spate of pay increases for African militaries that takes place after they seize power, see Decalo, , loc. cit. p. 118.Google Scholar

^{Page 411 note 1} Decalo, loc. cit. p. 120.

^{Page 411 note 2} See West Africa, 24 March 1972, and Decalo, loc. cit. p. 118.

^{Page 411 note 3} U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfers (Washington, D.C.), 08 1985, p. 63.Google Scholar

^{Page 411 note 4} Ibid. April 1987, pp. 60 and 87.

^{Page 411 note 5} Ibid. pp. 143–4.

^{Page 411 note 6} Brooke, James, ‘Africa Has an Arms Control Problem’, in The New York Times, 23 August 1987.Google Scholar

^{Page 411 note 7} Wren, Christopher, ‘Canadians Debate a Feeble Military’,Google Scholar in ibid. 15 12 1985.

^{Page 411 note 8} Brooke, loc. cit.

^{Page 412 note 1} Studies drawn from Latin America point to the universality of this proposition. According to Nordlinger, Eric A., ‘Soldiers in Mufti: the impact of military rule upon economic and social change in the non-western states’, in The American Political Science Review (Washington, D.C.), 64, 4, 12 1970, p. 1135: ‘In those Latin American countries with a politically non-involved military, the …level of defense in expenditures as a proportion of central government expenditures is 9.3 per cent; in countries with an officer corps that has intermittently entered the political arena the percentage is 14.1; while the figure reaches 18.5 in countries dominated by the military circa 1960’.Google Scholar

^{Page 412 note 2} May, loc. cit.

^{Page 412 note 3} The New York Times, 2 March 1986.

^{Page 412 note 4} Ibid.

^{Page 412 note 5} May, loc. cit.

^{Page 413 note 1} Gargan, Edward A., ‘In the Heart of Africa’, in The New York Times Magazine, 7 Decembers 1986.Google Scholar

^{Page 413 note 2} Bing, Geoffrey, Reap the Whirlwind: an account of Kwame Nkrumah's Ghana from 1950 to 1966 (London, 1968), p. 408.Google Scholar

^{Page 413 note 3} Bentil, M. A., ‘The Development of the Organization and Methods Service in Ghana’, in O & M Bulletin (Accra), 9, 1968, p. 27.Google Scholar

^{Page 413 note 4} Brooke, James, ‘Cameroon Battles Against Bureaucracy’, in The New York Times, 7 September 1987.Google Scholar

^{Page 414 note 1} Price, Robert, ‘Neo-Colonialism and Ghana's Economic Decline: a critical assessment’, University of California, Berkeley, 1983, p. 23.Google Scholar

^{Page 414 note 2} Ibid. pp. 20–1.

^{Page 414 note 3} For a veritable case-study of this phenomenon, see Price, RobertM., Society and Bureaucracy in Contemporary Ghana (Berkely and Los Angeles, 1975).Google Scholar

^{Page 414 note 4} See, for example, Pinkney, Robert, Ghana Under Military Rule, 1966–1969 (London, 1972), ch. IV.Google Scholar

^{Page 414 note 5} Kraft, Scott, ‘Missteps, Miscues, and Misunderstandings Mark US-Ghana Relations’ in Los Angeles Times, 5 October 1986.Google Scholar

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^{Page 415 note 1} Mazrui and Tidy, op. cit. p. 262.

^{Page 415 note 2} Cited in Decalo, loc. cit. p. 120.

^{Page 415 note 3} Mazrui and Tidy, op. cit. p. 262.

^{Page 415 note 4} Feit, loc. cit. p. 487.

^{Page 415 note 5} Nordlinger, loc. cit. p. 1137.

^{Page 415 note 6} Ibid.

^{Page 415 note 7} First, op. cit. p. 22.

^{Page 416 note 1} See, for example, Afrifa, A. A., The Ghana Coup 24th February 1966 (New York, 1966), pp. 49–50.Google Scholar

^{Page 416 note 2} Ibid. p. 54.

^{Page 416 note 3} Davidson, Basil, Black Star: a view of the life and times of Kwame Nkrumah (New York, 1973), pp. 55–6 and 70.Google Scholar

^{Page 416 note 4} Jackman, Robert W., ‘Explaining African Coups d'État’, in American Political Science Review, 80, 1 03 1986, p. 228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{Page 417 note 1} Mazrui, Ali A., ‘Soldiers as Traditionalizers: military rule and the re-Africanization of Africa’, in World Politics, XXVIII, 2 01 1976, p. 256.Google Scholar

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^{Page 417 note 3} May, loc. cit.

^{Page 418 note 1} The combination of pretentiousness and contempt in the military's attitude towards the citizenry is well captured in the claim of the leaders of the Argentinian armed forces, following their take-over of power in 1961, that they took that action in order to defend the nation against the people who, by allowing themselves to be ‘seduced from the path of rectitude’, had given a political mandate to the wrong leaders. See The Times (London), 1 April 1961; and Mazrui, Violence and Thought, pp. 10–11fn.

^{Page 419 note 1} Tordoff, William, Government and Politics in Africa (London, Basingstoke, and Bloomington, 1984), p. 168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{Page 419 note 2} May, loc. cit.

^{Page 419 note 3} Huntington, , The Soldiers and the State, p. 71.Google Scholar

^{Page 419 note 4} Batsa, op. cit. p. 60; and Mazrui and Tidy, op. cit. p. 229.

^{Page 419 note 5} Brooke, loc. cit.

^{Page 419 note 6} Huntington, Samuel P., Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven and London, 1968), p. 12.Google Scholar

^{Page 420 note 1} For instance, in ibid. p. 196, Huntington explains military interventions by ‘the absence of effective political institutions capable of mediating, refining, and moderating group political action’; and Bienen, Henry, Armies and Parties in Africa (New York and London, 1978), p. 146, claims that ‘the fragility of ruling institutions’ was the ‘decisive factor’ in the 1964 military mutinies in East Africa.Google Scholar

^{Page 420 note 2} Huntington, , Political Order in Changing Societies, pp. 199–200.Google Scholar

^{Page 420 note 3} See, for instance, Nkrumah, Kwame, Africa Must Unite (London, 1963), chs 7 and 10;Google Scholar and Kyriakides, Stanley, Cyprus: constitutionalism and crisis government (Philadelphia, 1968).Google Scholar

^{Page 420 note 4} Blyden, Edward W., West Africa Before Europe and Other Addresses (London, 1905).Google Scholar

^{Page 420 note 5} Cited in Dalton, George, Economic Anthropology and Development (New York, 1971), p. 18.Google Scholar

^{Page 421 note 1} Huntington, , Political Order in Changing Societies, p. 1.Google Scholar

^{Page 421 note 2} Ibid.

^{Page 421 note 3} Address delivered before the Africa Society, London, 26 June 1903. See Lynch, Hollis R. (ed.), Black Spokesman: selected published writings of Edward Wilmot Blyden (London, 1971), p. 327.Google Scholar

^{Page 421 note 4} The framers of the U.S. constitution did not intend to create a ‘pure democracy’, in which the people ruled directly. They worried that a government in which all citizens directly participated would be excessively subject to popular passions, and therefore they settled on a system in which popular rule (through the direct election of the members of the House of Representatives) would be one but not the only element. State legislatures, not the people, would choose the senators, and James Madison assured the Convention that the Senate would proceed ‘with more coolness, with more system, and with more wisdom, than the popular branch’. See Wilson, James, American Government: institutions and policies (Lexington, 1983 edn.), pp. 28–9.Google Scholar

^{Page 422 note 1} Ibid. p. 272.

^{Page 422 note 2} Roth, David F. and Wilson, Frank L., The Comparative Study of Politics (Englewood Cliffs, 1980 edn.), p. 134.Google Scholar

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^{Page 424 note 1} Ibid. pp. 339–41.

^{Page 424 note 2} Austin, Dennis, ‘The Ghana Armed Forces and Ghanaian Society’, in Third World Quarterly (London), 7, 1, 01 1985, p. 91.Google Scholar

^{Page 424 note 3} Ibid. p. 101.

^{Page 424 note 4} Ryan, Selwyn, ‘Electroal Engineering in Uganda’, in Mawaza (Kampala), 2, 4, 1971, pp. 3–4.Google Scholar

^{Page 425 note 1} Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies, p. 9.

^{Page 425 note 2} Mazrui and Tidy, op. cit. p. 263.

^{Page 426 note 1} Mazrui, ‘Soldiers as Traditionalizers’, p. 258.

^{Page 426 note 2} Ibid. p. 254.

^{Page 426 note 3} See Plange, Nii-Kwesi, ‘Colonialism and Underdevelopment in Northern Ghana: the political sociology of the colonial situation, 1900–1950’, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Toronto, 1976.Google Scholar

^{Page 426 note 4} Mazrui, ‘Soldiers as Traditionalizers’, p. 259.

^{Page 426 note 5} Ibid. pp, 262–3.

^{Page 427 note 1} Price, ‘Military Officer and Political Leadership’ p. 378.

^{Page 427 note 2} Ibid.

^{Page 427 note 3} Mazrui, ‘Soldiers as Traditionalizers’, pp. 263–4.

^{Page 428 note 1} Brooke, James, ‘For Burundi, Libyan Check is Still in Mail’, in The New York Times, 31 May 1987.Google Scholar

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^{Page 428 note 3} Batsa, op. cit. p. 66.

^{Page 429 note 1} Ibid. pp. 150, 153, and 155.

^{Page 429 note 2} Ibid. pp. 113 and 116–17.

^{Page 429 note 3} World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfer, 1985, p. 63.

^{Page 429 note 4} Austin, ‘The Ghana Armed Forces and the Ghanaian Society’, p. 96.

^{Page 430 note 1} See The Guardian (London), 23 July 1986.

^{Page 430 note 2} See Ahiakpor, James C. W., ‘The Success and Failure of Dependency Theory: the experience of Ghana’, in International Organization (Cambridge, Mass.), 39 3, Summer 1985, p. 542.Google Scholar

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^{Page 430 note 4} West Africa, 4 June 1984, p. 1155.

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^{Page 431 note 1} The New York Times, 13 May 1987.

^{Page 431 note 2} West Africa, 27 June 1988, p. 1186.

^{Page 431 note 3} First, The Barrel of a Gun, p. 31.

^{Page 431 note 4} Fanon, Frantz, The Wretched of the Earth (New York edn. 1963), p. 61.Google Scholar

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^{Page 432 note 1} Rensberger, Boyce, ‘Ancient Nubian Artifacts Yield Evidence of Earliest Monarchy’, in the The New York Times, 1 March 1979.Google Scholar

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^{Page 433 note 1} Museveni, Yowerri, Selected Articles on the Uganda Resistance War (Kampala, 1985), pp. 5, 12, and 39.Google Scholar

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^{Page 433 note 3} See Rule, Sheila, ‘Rebels Remain a Thorn for Uganda Regime’, in The New York Times, 16 August 1987,Google Scholar and ‘For Uganda, a Pledge of Order and Accusations of Abuse, Too’, in ibid. 3 September 1987.

^{Page 433 note 4} Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies, p. 5.

^{Page 434 note 1} Accounts of several attempts to overthrow the P.N.D.C. régime in Ghana were published in The Daily Journal (Elizabeth, N.J.), 18 11 1986;Google Scholar see also ‘U.S. Mercenaries Escape Brazil to Tell of Their Effort Toward African Coup’, in The New York Times, 27 December 1986.Google Scholar

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