^{Page 584 note 1} Rosenthal, E., Bantu Journalism in South Africa (Johannesburg, 1949), pp. 2–13.Google Scholar

^{Page 585 note 1} Aborigines Protection Society Papers, S 18, C 139/2: Jabavu to Chesson, 18 May 1881.

^{Page 585 note 2} Roux, E., Time Longer than Rope (Madison, 2nd edn. 1964), p. 58.Google Scholar

^{Page 585 note 3} There is some uncertainty as to the precise dates of these early organisations. See Foreman, L., ‘History of the Liberation Movement: the first black organisations’, in New Age (Cape Town), 10 07 1958Google Scholar; Carter, G., ‘African Nationalist Movements in South Africa’, in The Massachusetts Review (Amhurst), V, I, 1963, p. 152Google Scholar; and Benson, M., The African Patriots (London, 1963), p. 17.Google Scholar

^{Page 585 note 4} A.P.S. Papers, C. 160/274: ‘Tembu Location Meeting’, Mount Arthur Lady Frere, 15 July 1884, typed sheet.

^{Page 586 note 1} L. Foreman, ‘The First Black Organisations’, in New Age, 10 July 1958. Walker, E. A. (ed.), The Cambridge History of the British Empire, vol. VIII (Cambridge, 1963), p. 284.Google Scholar

^{Page 586 note 2} A.P.S. Papers, SI8, C. 139/5: Jabavu to F. W. Chesson, 18 August 1884.

^{Page 586 note 3} Ibid. Later, when soliciting funds from Imvo, Jabavu described the original objectives as ‘abolishing war between the Whites and Natives of South Africa, and of educating and generally uplifting the Native races.’ The Friend (London), 22 09 1911.Google Scholar

^{Page 586 note 4} South African Outlook (Lovedale), 12 1922.Google Scholar

^{Page 586 note 5} Jabavu, D. D. T., The Life of John Tengo Jabavu (Lovedale, 1922), p. 58.Google Scholar

^{Page 587 note 1} A.P.S. Papers, C. 139/4: Jabavu to Chesson, 24 October 1882.

^{Page 587 note 2} Ibid. C. 139/8: Jabavu to Chesson, 21 June 1886.

^{Page 587 note 3} Ibid.

^{Page 587 note 4} A.P.S. Papers, C. 139/12: Jabavu to Chesson, 17 July 1887.

^{Page 587 note 5} Foreman, ‘Birth of the Congress Movement’, in New Age, 17 July 1958.

^{Page 588 note 1} A.P.S. Papers, C. 139/13: Jabavu to Chesson, 25 July 1887.

^{Page 588 note 2} Ibid. C. 153: Holland (Downing Street) to Native Committee (Cape Town), Copy No. 108, 24 October 1887. This precedent was not conclusive. Responsible government still involved reserved powers where an aboriginal population was concerned. While the Act was within the Cape Legislature's competence, it was not legally a piece of racial discrimination.

^{Page 588 note 3} A.P.S. Papers, C. 139/19: Jabavu to Chesson, 28 November 1887.

^{Page 590 note 1} Houghton, K. A. Hobart, Native Higher Education (Lovedale, 1910), pp. 8–9.Google Scholar

^{Page 590 note 2} Blue Book on Native Affairs, 1874 (Cape Town, 1874), pp. 6–7.Google Scholar

^{Page 590 note 3} Many of those who became involved in provincial congresses and later in the South African Native National Congress were educated overseas, for example Rev. John Dube (U.S.A.); J. Thaele (U.S.A.); Alfred Mangena (U.K.); R. S. Msimang (U.K.); S. M. Makgatho (U.K.); P. K. I. Seme (U.S.A. and U.K.); G. D. Montsioa (U.K.). Others travelled overseas, for example Rev. W. Rubusana, Sol. Plaatje, S. Msane, Rev. H. R. Ngcayiya, and T. Mapikela.

^{Page 591 note 1} Jabavu, op. cit. pp. 22–3.

^{Page 591 note 2} Dube, J. L., The Zulu's Appeal for Light and England's Duty (London, 1909), pp. 6–7, 17, and 20.Google Scholar

^{Page 591 note 3} Report of the South African Native Affairs Commission, 1903–1905 (London, 1905), pp. 967–8.Google Scholar

^{Page 591 note 4} Ibid. pp. 868, 492, and 523.

^{Page 592 note 1} South African Native Races Committee, The South African Natives (London, 1908), pp. 196–206Google Scholar; Wells, J., Stewart of Lovedale (London, 1908), p. 292Google Scholar; Report of the Native Churches Commission (Pretoria, 1925), p. 31Google Scholar; Sundkler, B. G. M., Bantu Prophets in South Africa (London, 1961), p. 32Google Scholar; South African Native Affairs Commission, 1903–1905, pp. 46–7 and 709; Shepherd, R. H. W., ‘The Separatist Churches of South Africa’, in South Africnn OutLook (Lovedale), 03 1938.Google Scholar

^{Page 592 note 2} Vilakazi, A., Zulu Transformations (Pietermaritzburg, 1961), pp. 97–100 and 140–5Google Scholar; Hunter, M., Reaction to Conquest (London, 1936), pp. 351–5.Google Scholar

^{Page 593 note 1} Bokwe, J. K., The Native Land Question (London, 1894), p. 8.Google Scholar

^{Page 593 note 2} Blue Book on Native Affairs (Cape Town, 1908), Table II p. 53.Google Scholar

^{Page 594 note 1} South African Native Races Committee, The Natives of South Africa (London, 1901), p. 271Google Scholar, part of a questionnaire answered by Rev. J. K. Bokwe and Rev. W. Rubusana.

^{Page 594 note 2} Ibid. pp. 257–8 and 335.

^{Page 594 note 3} South African Native Affairs Commission, 1903–1905, pp. 743, 791, 974, 294, 725, 856, and 862.

^{Page 594 note 4} Ibid. pp. 389 and 294.

^{Page 594 note 5} Ibid. pp. 455–61.

^{Page 594 note 6} Ibid. p. 537.

^{Page 595 note 1} M. Benson, op. cit. p. 24. Rev. W. Rubusana had also argued for a South African university ‘after the fashion of Tuskegee in America’; The Natives of South Africa, p. 332.

^{Page 595 note 2} Dube, J. L., The Zulu's Appeal for Light and England's Duty (London, 1909), pp. 8 and 29Google Scholar

^{Page 595 note 3} Dube, J. L., The Zulu's Appeal for Light (London, 1914), p. 5.Google Scholar

^{Page 596 note 1} A.P.S. Papers, S 19, D2/3: Dube to ‘Chief and Gentlemen of the South African Native Congress’, 2 February 1912.

^{Page 596 note 2} Molema, M., The Bantu Past and Present (Edinburgh, 1920), pp. 268, 276, and 334–5.Google Scholar

^{Page 596 note 3} Report of the Pan-African Conference held on the 23–25 July 1900, p. 2, available in du Bois Papers, Accra. I am indebted to Dr E. Geiss of St Antony's College, Oxford, for this evidence.

^{Page 596 note 4} Coleman, J. S., Nigeria: background to nationalism (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1958), p. 187.Google Scholar

^{Page 597 note 1} Jabavu, , The Black Problem, pp. 27 and 66.Google Scholar

^{Page 597 note 2} Hobart Houghton, op. cit. p. 6. Twenty-two South Africans attended Lincoln University between 1896 and 1924. Shepperson, G., ‘Notes on Negro American Influences on the Emergence of African Nationalism’, in The Journal of African History (Cambridge I, 2, 2960, pp. 302–4.Google Scholar

^{Page 598 note 1} South African Native Affairs Commission, 1903–1905, p. 499.

^{Page 598 note 2} Ibid. p. 799. See also Izwi Labantu (East London), 16 04 1909.Google Scholar

^{Page 598 note 3} Gandhi's passive resistance was under way in 1906, and this too contributed to the rising tide of non-European protest.

^{Page 599 note 1} Marais, J S., The Cape Coloured People (Johannesburg, 1957), pp. 275–6.Google Scholar

^{Page 599 note 2} A.P.S. Papers, S. 22, G. 198; reprint from ‘South African News’, 23 March 1904. Dr Abdurahman was by this time a member of the Cape Provincial Council, a position he held with distinction for many years.

^{Page 599 note 3} Plaatje, S. T., Native Life (London, 1916)Google Scholar, ch. x, ‘Dr. Abdurahman, M.P.C.’ Plaatje was elected general secretary of the South African Native National Congress when it was formed in 1912. See also Molema, S. M., The Bantu Past and Present (Edinburgh, 1920), p. 137.Google Scholar

^{Page 599 note 4} Schreiner Papers, 1522.¹ WPS: Abdurahman to W. P. Schreiner, 2 August 1909; Minutes of First Non-European Conference, 23–25 June 1927 (Cape Town, 1927), p. 52.Google Scholar

^{Page 599 note 5} The Orange River Colony Congress was an early exception to this, embracing individuals of several tribal groups. South African Native Affairs Commission, 1903–1905, p. 291.

^{Page 600 note 1} Marks, S., ‘Hariette Colenso and the Zulus, 1874–1913’, in The Journal of African History, IV, 3, 1963, pp. 403 and 411CrossRefGoogle Scholar. A separate organisation, ‘Illiso Lepizwi Esimnyama’ (The Eye of the Black Tribe), founded by tribal chiefs and Christian Africans, came into existence in 1908.

^{Page 600 note 2} South African Native Affairs Commission, 1903–1905, p. 860. Evans, M. S., Black and White in South East Africa (London, 1916), p. 196Google Scholar, lists the grievances of mission-educated Africans in Natal.

^{Page 600 note 3} Tengo Javabu later established his Cape Native Convention, circa 1908. Blue Book on Native Affairs, 1907 (Cape Town, 1908), ‘Reports of District Commissioners,’ pp. 16–37.Google Scholar

^{Page 600 note 4} South African Native Affairs Commission, 1903–1905, pp. 1033–46, evidence of Enoch Mamba.

^{Page 600 note 5} A.P.S. Papers, S 22, G. 198, ‘Cape Native Petition’, undated cutting from Izwi, XLII, 60.Google Scholar

^{Page 600 note 6} A.P.S. Papers, S 22, G. 598: ‘Resolutions passed at Native Vigilance Association Meeting, Ndabeni Location’.

^{Page 601 note 1} South African Native Affairs Commission, 1903—1905, pp. 369–78, evidence of the Native Vigilance Association, Orange River Colony.

^{Page 601 note 2} Trapido, S., ‘A Preliminary Study of the Development of African Political Opinion, 1884–1955’ (B.A. dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand), 1959, pp. 10 and 35Google Scholar. The tendency to form small tribal associations was confirmed by Trapido in an interview with T. D. Mweli Skota.

^{Page 601 note 3} Mining Industry Commission (Pretoria, 1908), Minutes of Evidence, pt. IV, p. 1445.Google Scholar

^{Page 601 note 4} The Natal Congress does not appear to have taken up this issue by petition. There is some evidence that Natal was more hesitant on wider SouthAfrican issues; e.g. Rev.John Dube was due to accompany the 1909 South African Native Congress delegation to London but declined under pressure from the Natal Government. Cape Times (Cape Town), 7 07 1909Google Scholar. The Glen Grey Act with its council system also exercised considerable attraction for Natal Africans and tended to divert attention to local self government. Report of Deputation Commissioned by the Department of Native Affairs to Observe the Operation of the Glen Grey Act as applied to the Transkeian Territories (Natal Government Notice No. 420, 1908). This Commission comprised F. B. Bridgeman, M. N. Lutuli, P. J. Gumede, and recorded ‘their unanimous and enthusiastic endorsement of both the land tenure and council system as administered in the Transkeian Territories.’

^{Page 602 note 1} A.P.S. Papers, G. 198: ‘Cape Native Petition’.

^{Page 602 note 2} Ibid. S22 G. 198: Orpen to Sec. A.P.S., 2 July 1906, attaching ‘Native Petition, Orange River Colony’. In his covering letter Orpen drew attention to a petition from the head office of the Transvaal Native Congress, which Jesse M. Makhothe had dispatched directly to the A.P.S.

^{Page 603 note 1} Walker, , (ed.), Cambridge History, VIII, p. 647.Google Scholar

^{Page 603 note 2} Hansard, 28 February 1906, quoted in ‘The Honour of the British Parliament and the Englishman's Word,’ see A.P.S. Papers, S 19, D3/s 1: Harris to Thema, 10 September 1919, and Harris to Gumede, 13 September 1919.

^{Page 604 note 1} Hancock, W. K., Smuts: the sanguine years, 1870–1919 (Cambridge, 1962), p. 234.Google Scholar

^{Page 604 note 2} Calata, J. A., ‘A Short History of the African National Congress’ (mimeo, 1947), p. 2.Google Scholar

^{Page 604 note 3} Thompson, L. M., The Unfication of South Africa, 1902–1910 (Oxford, 1960), p. 215.Google Scholar

^{Page 604 note 4} W. P. Schreiner Papers, 1424 a: ‘The Résumé of the Proceedings of the South African Native Congress and the South African Native Convention,’ undated manuscript.

^{Page 605 note 1} Imvo Zabantsundu (Kingwilliamstown), 6 October 1908, quoted in Thompson, op. cit. pp. 214–15.

^{Page 605 note 2} Izwi Labantu, 16 April 1909, ‘Special Convention Number’, available in A.P.S. Papers, MSS Brit. Emp. S 24: ‘South African Cutting Book 1909–1910’.

^{Page 605 note 3} ‘The Natives and the Constitution,’ Cape Times, 24 February 1909. Sir Richard Solomon used the same argument in a letter to W. P. Schreiner; he regretted the clause on European descent but felt ‘we shall personally see the Cape policy extending over the whole of South Africa.’ Schreiner Papers, 1469: Sir Richard to Schreiner, 18 June 1909.

^{Page 606 note 1} Izwi, 16 April 1909.

^{Page 606 note 2} Proceedings of the Transvaal Native Congress, 24 June 1909, Resolution No. 2, available in Schreiner Papers.

^{Page 606 note 3} Cape Times, 21 July 1909; Imvo, 13 April 1909.

^{Page 606 note 4} Cape Times, 30 June 1909. Gandhi sailed at the same time, concerned about the Asiatic struggle in the Transvaal. He also held that ‘the union should not merely be a union of the White British subjects, but of all British subjects who were domiciled here’.

^{Page 606 note 5} Cape Times, 7 July 1909.

^{Page 607 note 1} Cape Times, 17 February 1909 See also Walker, , Schreiner, pp. 155–69.Google Scholar

^{Page 607 note 2} Morning Post (London), 28 07 1909Google Scholar. See also ‘An Appeal to the Parliament and Government of Great Britain and Ireland’, in The Times (London), 6 07 1909.Google Scholar

^{Page 607 note 3} The Nation (London), 14 08 1909.Google Scholar

^{Page 607 note 4} Thompson, , Unification of South Africa, pp. 402–7.Google Scholar

^{Page 608 note 1} Schreiner Papers, 1583: Mapikels to Schreiner, 19 November 1909.

^{Page 608 note 2} Umieteli wa Bantu (Johannesburg), 18 07 1936.Google Scholar

^{Page 608 note 3} Launched in 1912 as the South African Native National Congress, in 1925 it became the South African African National Congress.