^{page 401 note 1} World Bank, Rural Development – Sector Policy Paper (Washington), 02 1975.Google Scholar

^{page 401 note 2} For the conceptual distinction between ‘shared influence’ and ‘symbolic participation’, see Bachrach, Peter and Baratz, Morton, Power and Poverty (London, 1970), p. 20.Google Scholar

^{page 402 note 1} Cf. Guha, Sunil, ‘The Contribution of Non-Farm Activities to Rural Employment Promotion: experience in Iran, India and Syria’, in International Labour Review (Geneva), X, 3, 03 1974, pp. 235–50.Google Scholar

^{page 402 note 2} See, for example, Lele, Uma, The Design of Rural Development: lessons from Africa (Baltimore and London, 1975).Google Scholar

^{page 403 note 1} Goulet, Denis A., ‘Development for What?’, in Comparative Political Studies (Beverly Hills), 1, 2, 07 1968, p. 301.Google Scholar

^{page 403 note 2} Apter, David E., Choice and the Politics of Allocation (New Haven, 1971).Google Scholar

^{page 404 note 1} Goulet, Denis A., The Cruel Choice: a new concept in the theory of development (New York, 1973), pp. 215–24.Google Scholar

^{page 404 note 2} See Jaguaribe, Helio, Economic and Political Development: a theoretical approach and a Brazilian case study (Cambridge, Mass., 1968), p. 5CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Griffin, Keith, Underdevelopment in Spanish America (London, 1969), p. 117Google Scholar; Kindleberger, Charles P., Economic Development (New York, 1965), p. 3Google Scholar; and Robinson, Sherman, ‘Theories of Economic Growth and Development: methodology and content’, in Economic Development and Cultural Change (Chicago), XXI, 1, 10 1972, pp. 54–67.Google Scholar

^{page 404 note 3} My usage of the term ‘system capabilities’ is less restrictive than that of Almond, Gabriel, Political Development (Boston, 1970)Google Scholar, but more in line with that of McGranahan, Donald, ‘Development Indicators and Development Models’, in The Journal of Development Studies (London), VIII, 3, 1972, pp. 91–102.Google Scholar

^{page 404 note 4} Cf. Seers, Dudley, ‘What Are We Trying to Measure?’, in The Journal of Development Studies, VIII, 3, 1972, pp. 21–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{page 405 note 1} For a good treatment of this subject, see Hirschmann, Albert O., Strategy of Economic Growth (New Haven, 1958)Google Scholar, Myint, H., Economic Theory and the Underdeveloped Countries (London, 1971)Google Scholar, and Streeten, Paul, The Frontiers of Development Studies (London, 1972).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{page 405 note 2} Rostow, W. W., The Stages of Economic Growth: a non-communist manifesto (Cambridge, 1960).Google Scholar See also his Politics and the Stages of Growth (Cambridge, 1971).

^{page 405 note 3} This ideology is best articulated in the writings of Kuznets, Simon, Moderm Economic Growth: studies in comparative economics (New Haven, 1966)Google Scholar, and Economic Growth of Nations:total output and production structure (Cambridge, Mass., 1971). For a critical review of the utility and limitations of this measuring device, see Whynes, David K., ‘The Measurement of Comparative Development – a Survey and Critique’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), XII, 1, 03 1974, pp. 89–107Google Scholar, and Kumar, Dharma, ‘Changes in Income Distribution and Poverty in India: a review of the literature’, in World Development (Oxford), II, 1, 01 1974, pp. 31–41.Google Scholar

^{page 406 note 1} For an excellent discussion of ‘balanced growth’, and the alternative strategy of ‘unbalanced growth’, see Hirschmann, op. cit. pp. 50–75.

^{page 406 note 2} See Green, Reginald H., ‘Four African Development Plans: Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, and Tanzania’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, III, 2, 08 1965, pp. 249–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Seidman, Ann, Comparative Development Strategies in East Africa (Nairobi, 1972).Google Scholar

^{page 406 note 3} Fallers, Lloyd, ‘A Note on the Trickle Effect’, in The Public Opinion Quarterly (Princeton), XVIII, 3, 1954, pp. 314–21.Google Scholar

^{page 406 note 4} Schwarz, Walter, Nigeria (London, 1968), p. 25.Google Scholar

^{page 406 note 5} Seers, Dudley, ‘The Transmission of Inequality’, in Gardiner, Robert K. (ed.), Africa and the World (London, 1971), p. 180.Google Scholar

^{page 407 note 1} Government of Uganda. Second Five-Year Plan, 1966–71 (Entebbe, 1966), p. 77.

^{page note 2} Seidman, Ann, ‘A Note. Have and Have-Nots in Zambia – Or What Happens to the Investible Surpluses in Zambia?’, University of Zambia, Lusaka, 1973, p. 5.Google Scholar

^{page 407 note 3} International Labour Office, Employment, Incomes and Equality: a strategy for increasing productive employment in Kenya (Geneva, 1972), p. 76.Google Scholar

^{page 407 note 4} Leys, Colin, ‘Politics in Kenya: the development of peasant society’, in The British Journal of Political Science (London), 1, 3, 1971, p. 310.Google Scholar

^{page 407 note 5} Clower, W. W. et al. , Growth Without Development: an economic survey of Liberia (Evanston, 1966), p. 23.Google Scholar

^{page 408 note 1} The population figures used here are different from those employed by Seidman, Ann, ‘A Note’, pp. 2–3.Google Scholar

^{page 408 note 2} Computed on the basis of data from the Republic of Zambia, Monthly Digest of Statistics (Lusaka), XI, 7–8, 07–08 1975, pp. 2 and 54.Google Scholar

^{page 408 note 3} Cf. Singer, H. W., ‘Rural Unemployment as a Background to Rural–Urban Migration in Africa’, in Manpower and Unemployment Research in Africa (Montreal), VI, 2, 1973, pp. 37–46Google Scholar; Todaro, M. P., ‘A Model of Labour Migration and Urban Unemployment in Less Developed Countries’, in The American Economic Review (Menasha), LIX, 1, 03 1969, pp. 138–48Google Scholar; and J. R. Harris and M. P. Todaro, ‘Migration, Unemployment and Development: a two-sector analysis’, in ibid. LX, 1, March 1970, pp. 126–42.

^{page 408 note 4} See Employment, Incomes and Equality, pp. 33–64; Caldwell, John C., African Rural Urban Migration: the movement to Ghana's towns (London, 1969)Google Scholar; and Ominde, S. H., Land and Population Movements in Kenya (London, 1969).Google Scholar

^{page 408 note 5} Todaro, M. P., ‘Income Expectations, Rural–Urban Migration and Employment in Africa’, in International Labour Office Review, 104, 5, 11 1971, pp. 387–453.Google Scholar

^{page 408 note 6} Weeks, John, ‘An Exploration into the Nature of the Problem of Urban Imbalance in Africa’, in Manpower and Unemployment Research in Africa, VI, 2, 1973, pp. 9–35Google Scholar; and Bairoch, Paul, Urban Unemployment in Developing Countries (Geneva, 1973).Google Scholar

^{page 408 note 7} Singer, H. W., ‘Brief Note on Unemployment Rates in Developing Countries’, in Manpower and Unemployment Research in Africa, III, 1, 04 1970, pp. 1–3.Google Scholar

^{page 409 note 1} For an excellent analysis of this phenomenon, see Wolff, R. D., ‘Modern Imperialism: the view from the metropolis’, in The American Economic Review, LX, 2, 05 1970, pp. 225–30.Google Scholar

^{page 409 note 2} Cf. T. Dos Santos, ‘The Structure of Dependence’, in ibid. pp. 231–6; Furtado, Celso, Obstacles to Development in Latin America (Garden City, N.Y., 1970)Google Scholar; and Amin, Samir, ‘Underdevelopment and Dependence in Black Africa’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, x, 4, 12 1972, pp. 503–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{page 410 note 1} Thahane, Timothy T., ‘The Impact of Major Factors of International Economy on African Economic Development’, in Bielenstein, Dieter (ed.), Perspectives in Afro-German Relations (Bonn, 1975), pp. 111–25.Google Scholar

^{page 410 note 2} Ibid. p. 113. See also Tietzel, Manfred and Melcher, Jürgen, Oil and the Third World (Bonn, 1975), especially pp. 33–42.Google Scholar

^{page 410 note 3} Thahane, loc. cit. p. 113.

^{page 410 note 4} Helleiner, Gerald K. (ed.), A World Divided: the less developed countries in the international economy (Cambridge, 1976)Google Scholar, and also Lewis, W. Arthur, Some Aspects of Economic Planning (Accra, 1969), pp. 3–10.Google Scholar

^{page 410 note 5} It should be noted that despite the optimistic expectations concerning the availability of foreign investment, on the basis of which most African governments formulated their first national development plans, only 24·8 per cent of the total investment made to the Third World by the D.A.C. countries went to Africa. Thahane, loc. cit. pp. 115–16.

^{page 410 note 6} Cf. Green, loc. cit. p. 254; Bienen, Henry, Tanzania – Party Transformation and Economic Development (Princeton, 1967 edn.)Google Scholar; Leys, Colin, ‘The Analysis of Planning’, in Leys, (ed.), Politics and Change in Developing Countries (Cambridge, 1969), pp. 247–75Google Scholar; and Nnoli, Okwudiba, ‘External Stimuli and National Planning in Tanzania’, in The African Review (Dar es Salaam), 1, 3, 01 1972, pp. 8–28.Google Scholar

^{page 411 note 1} According to Thahane, loc. cit. p. 116, the bulk of direct foreign investment in Africa between 1965 and 1970 went into petroleum, mining, and smelting – and, of course, few countries possess these resources.

^{page 411 note 2} Cf. de la Torre, José, ‘Foreign Investment and Export Dependence’, in Economic Development and Cultural Change, XXIII, 1, 10 1974, pp. 133–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cohen, D. L. and Tribe, M. A., ‘Suppliers' Credit in Ghana and Uganda – an Aspect of the Imperialist System’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, x, 4, 12 1972, pp. 525–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rweyemamu, J. F., ‘The Political Economy of Foreign Private Investment in the Underdeveloped Countries’, in The African Review, 1, 1, 1971, pp. 108–18Google Scholar; and Langdon, S., ‘Multi-National Corporations, Taste Transfer and Underdevelopment: a case study from Kenya’, in Review of African Political Economy (London), 2, 1972, pp. 12–35.Google Scholar

^{page 411 note 3} What Now? The 1975 Dag Hammarskjöld Report on Development and International Cooperation (Uppsala, 1975), pp. 10 and 68.

^{page 412 note 1} Cliffe, Lionel, ‘Political Economy of Rural Africa’, University of Zambia, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, R.P.P. No. 1, 1975, p. 40.Google Scholar

^{page 412 note 2} Computed from Zambia, Monthly Digest of Statistics, XI, 7–8, 07–08 1975, p. 19.Google Scholar

^{page 413 note 1} Ollawa, Patrick E., ‘The Political and Social Setting of Military Government in Nigeria: problems of political stability revisited’, in Genève-Afrique (Geneva), XV, 2, 1976, pp. 6–37.Google Scholar

^{page 413 note 2} The Annual Review of the Food and Agricultural Organisation (Rome:, 1972).

^{page 413 note 3} Flores, Xavier, Agricultural Organisation and Development (Geneva, 1971), especially pp. 339–416.Google Scholar

^{page 414 note 1} For a useful discussion of the implications of the choice of technology for rural development, see Müller, Jens, ‘Appropriate Technology and Technological Dualism’, in Leys, Roger (ed.), Dualism and Rural Developmsnt in East Africa (Copenhagan, 1973), pp. 163–76Google Scholar; and Gotsch, Carl H., ‘Technical Change and the Distribution of Income in Rural Areas’, in American Journal of Agricultural Economics (Urbana, Ill.), 54, 2, 05 1972, pp. 326–41.Google Scholar

^{page 415 note 1} T_p includes not only such inputs as new crop breeds, fertilisers, irrigation and other sources of water, marketing, storage and credit facilities, supplies of energy, farmer education, research and experimentation, pest control, and other forms of extension services, but also the massive promotion of rural industries that have growth-inducing linkages with the agricultural and other sectors of the economy.

^{page 416 note 1} Cf. Fafunwa, A. B., ‘Does Formal Schooling Push Young People Out of Agriculture in Africa?’, in Rural Africana (East Lansing), 19, Winter 1973, pp. 56–66Google Scholar; and Employment, Incomes and Equality, pp. 33ff.

^{page 417 note 1} The notion of s_p corresponds closely to Paul Baran's concept of ‘potential economic surplus’ which he distinguishes from ‘actual economic surplus’. See The Political Economy of Growth (Harmondsworth, 1967), especially pp. 132–4.

^{page 418 note 1} Galbraith, John K., Economic Development (Cambridge, Mass., 1965), p. 46.Google Scholar

^{page 418 note 2} Tilly, Charles, The Vandee (London, 1964), p. 331.Google Scholar

^{page 420 note 1} Dorner, Peter and Felstehausen, Herman, ‘Agrarian Reform and Employment: the Columbian case’, in the I.L.O. study, Agrarian Reform and Employment (Geneva, 1971), p. 99.Google Scholar

^{page 420 note 2} Waterston, Albert, ‘Preparing a Program for Agriculture’, Economic Development Institute, Seminar Paper No. 5, Washington, 1973, p. 21.Google Scholar

^{page 421 note 1} Dean, Edwin, Plan Implementation in Nigeria, 1962–1966 (Ibadan, 1972), p. xv.Google Scholar

^{page 421 note 2} Musuka, Simon Otema, M.P. for Mpika West, quoted in the Times of Zambia (Lusaka), 23 01 1976.Google Scholar

^{page 422 note 1} Perhaps the greatest weakness of Guy Hunter's otherwise insightful book, Modernising Peasant Societies: a comparative study in Asia and Africa (London, 1969), is his naï;veté in equating radical measures with a ‘communist solution’ because they lead to ‘disorganisation and bitterness’ (p. 149). However, he left one crucial question unanswered: Which is ethically justifiable – the ‘disorganisation’ of the privileged élite or the penury of the rural masses?