^{Page 377 note 1} Luckham, Robin, ‘Militarization in Africa’, in Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI Yearbook, 1985 (London and Philadelphia, 1985).Google Scholar

^{Page 377 note 2} Benoit, Emile, Defence and Economic Growth in Developing Countries (Boston, 1973).Google Scholar

^{Page 378 note 1} Source: SIPRI Yearbook, 1985, table 9.1. North Africa includes Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia; sub-Saharan Africa includes all other African countries, including South Africa.

^{Page 378 note 2} Ball, Nicole, ‘Defence and Development: a critique of the Benoit study’, in Economic Development and Cultural Change (Chicago), 31, 3, 1983, pp. 507–24.Google Scholar

^{Page 378 note 3} Benoit, Emile, ‘Growth and Defence in Developing Countries’,Google Scholar in ibid. 26, 2, 1978, pp. 271–80.

^{Page 379 note 1} Deger, Saadat, ‘Human Resources, Government Education Expenditure and the Military Burden in Less Developed Countries’, Birkbeck College, London, 1981, Discussion Paper No. 109.Google Scholar

^{Page 379 note 2} Deger, Saadat, ‘Does Defence Expenditure Mobilise Resources in LDCs?’, Annual Conference of Development Studies Association, Dublin, 1982.Google Scholar

^{Page 379 note 3} Nabe, Oumar, ‘Military Expenditures and Industrialization in Africa’, in Journal of Economic Issues (Lincoln, Nebraska), XVII, 2, 1983, pp. 575–87.Google Scholar

^{Page 380 note 1} Ball, ‘Defence and Development’.

^{Page 380 note 2} See Smith, Ronald, ‘Military Expenditure and Capitalism’, in Cambridge Journal of Economics, 1, 1, 1977, pp. 61–76,CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Military Expenditure and Investment in OECD Countries, 1954–1973, in Journal of Comparative Economics (New York), IV, 1, 1980, pp. 19–32;Google ScholarDeger, , ‘Human Resources, Government Education Expenditure and the Military Burden’ and ‘Does Defence Expenditure Mobilise Resources in LDCs?’;Google ScholarDeger, Saadat and Sen, Somnath, ‘Military Expenditure, Spin-off and Economic Development’, in Journal of Development Economics (Amsterdam), 13, 1983, pp. 67–84;Google ScholarDeger, Saadat and Smith, Ron, ‘Military Expenditure and Growth in Less Developed Countries’, in Journal of Conflict Resolution (Beverly Hills), II, 2, 1983, pp. 335–54;Google ScholarFaini, Riccardo, Annez, Patricia, and Taylor, Lance, ‘Defence Spending, Economic Structure and Growth: evidence among countries over time’, in Economic Development and Cultural Change, 32, 3, 1984, pp. 487–98;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Lim, David, ‘Another Look at Growth and Defence in Less Developed Countries’,Google Scholar in ibid. 31, 2, 1983, pp. 377–84.

^{Page 380 note 3} Source: Maizels, Alfred and Nissanke, M. K., ‘The Determinants of Military Expenditures in Developing Countries’, in World Development (Oxford), 14, 1986, pp. 1125–40.Google Scholar

^{Page 381 note 1} A clear statement of the traditional answers to this question can be found in Akinyemi, A. Bolaji et al. , ‘Disarmament and Development: utilization of resources for military purposes in black Africa’, Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, Lagos, 1979, prepared for the United Nations.Google Scholar

^{Page 381 note 2} Sivard, R. L., World Military and Social Expenditures, 1985, (Washington, D.C., 1985), p. 24.Google Scholar According to SIPRI Yearbook, 1985, ch. 9, 23 régimes were of military origin, with a further three being impossible to identify as either military or civilian.Google Scholar

^{Page 382 note 1} SIPRI Yearbook, 1985, table 10.4.

^{Page 383 note 1} SIPRI Yearbook, 1985, table 7A5.

^{Page 383 note 2} Sunkel, Osvaldo, ‘Transnational Capitalism and National Disintegration in Latin America’, in Social and Economic Studies (Kingston, Jamaica), 22, 1973, pp. 132–76;Google Scholar and Palma, Gabriel, ‘Dependency: a formal theory of underdevelopment or a methodology for the analysis of concrete situations of underdevelopment?’, in World Development, 6, 1978, pp. 881–924.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{Page 383 note 3} Frank, Isaiah, Foreign Enterprise in Development Countries (Baltimore, 1980).Google Scholar

^{Page 385 note 1} Based on Sivard, R. L., World Military and Social Expenditures, 1983 (Washington, D.C., 1983). This source gives information on the ‘official use of violence against the public’ only for military régimes. Sivard, op. cit. 1985, gives this information for both military and other régimes, but 1985 is too remote from the period 1978–1980 for this more complete information to be used in our regressions. For instance, the number of countries in our African sample of 38, which Sivard classifies as being under military rule, rose from 19 in 1983 to 23 in 1985.Google Scholar

^{Page 385 note 2} Sivard, op. cit. 1983, p. 11.

^{Page 386 note 1} Ball, Nicole, ‘Measuring Third World Security Expenditure: a research note’, in World Development, 12, 2, 1984, pp. 157–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{Page 387 note 1} United Nations, A System of National Accounts (New York, 1968), para. 5.117e.Google Scholar

^{Page 389 note 1} Source: Maizels, and Nissanke, , loc. cit. tables 3, 4, and 5.Google Scholar

^{Page 392 note 1} Lewis Fry Richardson introduced this method, but his threshold was 315 deaths; Statistics of Deadly Quarrels (Pittsburgh, 1960), ch. II.Google Scholar

^{Page 395 note 1} Johnson, Thomas H., Slater, Robert O., and McGowan, Pat, ‘Explaining African Military Coups d'État, 1960–1982’, in The American Political Science Review (Washington, D.C.), 78, 3, 09, pp. 622–40.Google Scholar

^{Page 395 note 2} Decalo, Samuel, Coups and Army Rule in Africa: studies in military style (New Haven and London, 1976).Google Scholar

^{Page 395 note 3} Cf.Huntington, Samuel P., The Soldier and the State (New York, 1964).Google Scholar

^{Page 395 note 4} Mazrui, Ali A., ‘The Resurrection of the Warrior Tradition in African Political Culture’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 13, 1, 03 1975, pp. 67–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{Page 395 note 5} Auma-Osolo, Agola, ‘Objective African Military Control: a new paradigm in civil-military relations’, in Journal of Peace Research (Oslo), XVII, 1, 1980, pp. 29–46.Google Scholar

^{Page 397 note 1} Cf.Kirk-Greene, A. H. M., ‘Stay By Your Radios’: documentation for a study of military government in tropical Africa (Leiden and Cambridge, 1981).Google Scholar

^{Page 398 note 1} Doumenge, François, Enclavement et développement (Paris, 1986).Google Scholar

^{Page 400 note 1} Dommen, Edward, ‘Some Distinguishing Characteristics of Island States’, in World Development, 8, 12, 1980, pp. 931–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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