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⁵ Five organisations were then jockeying for a place in the emerging sports order: the anti-apartheid South African Non-Racial Olympic Committee (SAN-ROC), the South African Council on Sport (SACOS), and the National Sports Congress (NSC), as well as the establishment South African National Olympic Committee (SANOC) and the Confederation of South African Sport (CSAS). SAN-ROC was formed in the early 1960s but state harassment forced its leaders into exile. Under Sam Ramsamy's guidance it forged close links with the International Olympic Committee, the Organisation of African Unity, and the United Nations, and its lobbying resulted in the almost total isolation of South African sport. SACOS was formed in 1973 and became the internal wing of the sports liberation movement. In 1989 a number of officials split from SACOS and formed the NSC which aligned itself to the African National Congress. Establishment sport refers to the white dominated network of clubs, national associations, and umbrella federations intertwined with the apartheid state.

⁶ Pretoria News, 7 November 1991.

⁷ Sunday Tribune (Durban), 20 10 1991;Google ScholarDaily Dispatch (East London), 12 11 1991;Google ScholarThe Star, 16 November 1991; and The Citizen (Johannesburg), 18 and 19 11 1991.Google Scholar

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⁹ The Star, 15 November 1991.

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¹³ Craven, D. H., ‘Springboks’, in Potgeiter, D. J. (ed.), Standard Encyclopaedia of Southern Africa (Cape Town, 1974).Google Scholar Nearly 20 years later, however, Craven, a former Springbok and president of the establishment South African Rugby Board, claimed that the Springbok was registered as the national emblem in 1903. Diamond Fields Advertiser (Kimberley), 20 03 1992.Google Scholar

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³² ‘The Future of Sport in Post-Apartheid South Africa’, in Time (New York), 29 05 1995.Google Scholar

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⁴³ In the early hours of 17 June 1992, an Inkatha impi (battalion) from the KwaMadala hostel (Vanderbijlpark, Southern Transaal), allegedly assisted by South African police, massacred 42 residents in an adjacent squatter settlement known as Boipatong. On 7 September, 70,000 ANC supporters staged a protest march in Bisho, capital of Ciskei. The Homeland's troops, under the command of a colonel seconded from the South African Defence Force, opened fire and killed 28 people.

⁴⁴ Waluz, Janus, a Polish émigré linked with the Conservative Party and the paramilitary Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB), assassinated the popular and militant Chris Hani in April 1993.Google Scholar

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⁴⁸ New Nation (Johannesburg), 26 06 1992Google Scholar, and The Citizen, 25 June 1992.

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⁵² The Star, 13 June 1994.

⁵³ Sunday Times, 26 February 1995.

⁵⁴ Sowetan (Johannesburg), 20 04 1995.Google Scholar See also, Sunday Times, 23 April 1995.

⁵⁵ Injured during the Test against Western Samoa, Coloured player Chester Williams only returned to the Springbok side midway through the tournament.

⁵⁶ The Citizen, 25 May 1995.

⁵⁷ Cape Times (Cape Town), 19 10 1991Google Scholar, and The Citizen, 25 May 1995.

⁵⁸ Adam and Moodley, op. cit. p. 43.

⁵⁹ Cape Times, 4 September 1993, and personal interview, 22 December 1994.

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⁶⁵ Sowetan, 26 and 29 May 1995.

⁶⁶ ‘Bok Emblem Gets Steve Tshwete's Vote’, in Weekend Post, 12 10 1991Google Scholar, and Eastern Province Herald (Port Elizabeth), 10 12 1991.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Asmal, Kadar, ‘Let's Steal the Springbok from Verwoerd’, in Weekly Mail and Guardian (Johannesburg), 28 07 1995.Google Scholar President Mandela made the same point in support of the Springbok, noting that he too lived and worked in buildings constructed during apartheid. The Citizen, 26 June 1995.

⁶⁸ Balibar, loc. cit. pp. 98–9. See also, Hindess, Barry, ‘Actors and Social Relations’, in Wardell, Mark and Turner, Stephen (eds.), Sociological Theory in Transition (Boston, 1988), p. 118.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Immanuel Wallerstein, ‘The Construction of Peoplehood: racism, nationalism, ethnicity’, in Balibar and Wallerstein, op. cit. p. 73.

⁷⁰ Ibid.

⁷¹ House of Assembly Debates, 1995, cols. 2745 and 2756.Google Scholar

⁷² Desmond, Cosmas, ‘But What About the RDP?’, in Daily News, 12 06 1995.Google Scholar

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⁷⁴ The Citizen, 20 June 1995.

⁷⁵ Sowetan, 26 June 1995.

⁷⁶ City Press, 25 June 1995.

⁷⁷ The Star, 26 June 1995.

⁷⁸ Ibid. and Cape Times, 17 August 1995.

⁷⁹ The Citizen, 26 June 1995.

⁸⁰ Ibid. 8 March 1996. The emblems commission comprised senior sports officials from both the old establishment and the anti-apartheid movement.

⁸¹ Saturday Star, 9 March 1996, and Sowetan, 12 March 1996.

⁸² Tshwete, for example, attempted to stifle ANC MPs who criticised the Springbok emblem during a public committee debate on his department's budget allocation. House of Assembly Debates, 1995, col. 2772.Google Scholar

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⁹⁴ City Press, 2 July 1995.

⁹⁵ Sowetan, 29 June 1995.

⁹⁶ Editorial, New Nation, 30 June 1995.