^{page 202 note 1} The absence of any specific reference to women in this review of the literature is deliberate since the topic is significant enough to merit a separate article.

^{page 202 note 2} For discussion on convergence theory, see Weinberg, I., ‘The Problem of Convergence of Industrial Societies: a critical look at the state of theory’, in Comparative Studies in Society and History (Cambridge), II, 2, 01 1969, pp. 1–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar; D. C. Tipps, ‘Modernization Theory and the Study of National Societies: a critical perspective’, in ibid. xv, 2, March 1973, p. 199–226; L. E. Shiner, ‘Tradition/Modernity: an ideal type gone astray’, in ibid. XVII, 2, April 1975, pp. 245–52; and R. J. Skinner, ‘Technological Determinism: a critique of convergence theory’, in ibid. XVIII, 1, January 1976, pp. 2–27. S. M. Lipset's observations on the confrontation between functionalist theory and neo-Marxian or conflict theory are very relevant; see his ‘Social Structure and Social Change’, in Blau, P. M. (ed.), Approaches to the Study of Social Structure (New York, 1975), pp. 172–209Google Scholar.

^{page 203 note 1} Cf. Fallers, Lloyd A., ‘Societal Analysis’, in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York), 14, 19, pp. 562–72Google Scholar.

^{page 203 note 2} For example, Collins, R., ‘Functional and Conflict Theories of Educational Stratification’, in American Sociological Review (New York), 36, 1971, pp. 1002–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Neelsen, J. P., ‘Education and Social Mobility’, in Comparative Education Review (Los Angeles), XIX, 1 02 1975 pp. 129–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

^{page 204 note 1} See Trow, M., ‘The Second Transformation of American Secondary Education’, in Bendix, R. and Lipset, S. (eds.), Class, Status and Power (New York, 1966), pp. 437–49Google Scholar; and the commentary by Dreeben, R., ‘American Schooling: patterns and processes of stability and change’, in Barber, B. and Inkeles, A. (eds.), Stability and Social Change (Boston, 1971), pp. 82–119Google Scholar.

^{page 205 note 1} Abernethy, D., The Political Dilemma of Popular Education (Stanford, 1969)Google Scholar, is probably the best political case-study; but see also Rothchild, Donald, ‘Ethnic Inequalities in Kenya’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), VII, 4, 12 1969, pp. 689–711CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

^{page 205 note 2} African rulers were often extremely perceptive about the potential consequences of schooling. See, for example, McCaskie, T. C., ‘Innovational Eclecticism: the Asante Empire and Europe in the 19th century’, in Comparative Studies in Society and History, XIV, 1, 01 1972, pp. 30–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

^{page 206 note 1} Bugnicourt, J., ‘Disparités scolaires en Afrique’, in Tiers-Monde (Paris), 48, 10–12 1971, pp. 751–86Google Scholar; Gould, W. T. S., ‘Geography and Equal Educational Opportunity in Tropical Africa’, in Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geographie (Leiden), 62, 2, 1971, pp. 82–9Google Scholar; and Gould, W. T. S., ‘Patterns of Lower School Enrollment in Uganda’, in East African Geographical Review (Kampala), 10, 04 1972, p. 65–74Google Scholar.

^{page 206 note 2} Soja, Edward, The Geography of Modernization in Kenya (Syracuse, 1968)Google Scholar.

^{page 206 note 3} Foster, Philip, Education and Social Change in Ghana (Chicago, 1966)Google Scholar. For an analysis at the ‘micro-level’, see Foster, Philip, ‘Status, Power and Education in a Traditional Community’, in School Review (Chicago), 72, 2, Summer 1964, pp. 158–82Google Scholar.

^{page 206 note 4} Thabault, R., Mon village, 1848–1914 (Paris, 1945)Google Scholar, published in English as Education and Change in a Village Community: Mazieres-en-Gatine, 1848–1914 (London, 1971)Google Scholar.

^{page 207 note 1} For some recent examples of continued opposition to schooling, see Oppong, C., ‘The Dagomba Response to the Introduction of State Schools’, in Ghana Journal of Sociology (Legon), II, 1, 02 1966, pp. 17–25Google Scholar; and Murray, C., ‘Status Conflict: cattle and education in Ankole’, in Uganda Journal (Kampala), 34, 1, pp. 1–14Google Scholar.

^{page 207 note 2} For example, in the French and British territories respectively, see Harding, L., ‘Les Écoles des péres blancs au Soudan français, 1895–1920’, in Cahiers d'études africaines (Paris), XI, 1, 1971, pp. 101–28Google Scholar, and Thomas, R. G., ‘Education in Northern Ghana, 1906–1940: a study in colonial paradox’, in International Journal of African Historical Studies (New York), VII, 3, 1974, pp. 427–67Google Scholar.

^{page 207 note 3} For the latter, see Bouché, D., ‘Les Écoles françaises au Soudan à l'époque de la conquête, 1884–1900’, in Cahiers d'études africaines, VI, 2, 1966, pp. 228–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

^{page 208 note 1} Dubbeldam, L. B. F., The Primaiy School and Community in Mwanza District Tanzania (Groningen, 1970)Google Scholar.

^{page 209 note 1} Brownstein, L., Education and Development in Rural Kenya (New York, 1972)Google Scholar; see also Mbilinyi, M. M., ‘The Decision to Educate in Rural Tanzania’, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam, 1972Google Scholar, and ‘The Problem of Unequal Access to Primary Education in Tanzania’, in Rural Africana (East Lansing), 25, Fall 1974, pp. 5–28Google Scholar.

^{page 209 note 2} Lloyd, P. C., Power and Independence: urban Africans' perceptions of social inequality (London, 1974)Google Scholar.

^{page 210 note 1} Levy, M., ‘Determinants of Primary School Drop-Outs in Developing Countries’, in Comparative Education Review, XV, 1, 02 1971, pp. 44–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

^{page 210 note 2} Estimates based on the relationship between the size of various age cohorts and the level of enrolment can be very misleading: although at a particular date only, say, 40 per cent of those in a certain age group may be at school, it might still be the case that 80 per cent of that cohort will be enroled at some time or another. Thus a few years of primary education may be more widely diffused among the younger population than some figures suggest.

^{page 211 note 1} The principal investigations upon which this commentary is based are: Anderson, C., Bowman, M. J., and Olson, J. B., Students, Teachers, and Opportunity Perceptions in Kenya, 1961–1968, Vols. I and II (Washington, 1969)Google Scholar; Campion-Vincent, V., ‘Systéme d'enseignement et mobiité sociale au Sénégal’, in Revue française de sociologie (Paris), 2, 1970, pp. 164–78Google Scholar; Charlick, R. B., ‘Access to Élite Education in the Ivory Coast: the importance of socio-economic origins’, in The Sociology of Education (Washington), 51, 3, 07 1978, pp. 187–200Google Scholar; Clignet, Rémi and Foster, Philip, The Fortunate Few: a study of secondary schools and students in the Ivory Coast (Evanston, 1966)Google Scholar; Clignet, Rémi and Foster, Philip, ‘La Prééminence de l'enseignement classique en Côte d'Ivoire’, in Revue française de sociologie, VII, 1966, pp. 32–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Currie, J., ‘Secondary School Selection and Occupational Placement in Uganda: the impact of family, schooling and academic achievement on educational and occupational attainment’, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1975Google Scholar; Dorsey, B. J., ‘The African Secondary School Leaver: aspirations, academic achievement and post-school employment’, in Murphree, M. W. (ed), Education, Race and Employment in Rhodesia (Salisbury, 1975)Google Scholar; Eliou, M., ‘Scolarisation et promotion féminines en Afrique (Côte d'Ivoire, Haute Volta, Sénégal)’, in Tiers-Monde, XIII, 49, 01–03 1972, pp. 41–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and ‘Scolarité primaire et accès au second degré au Niger et au Sénégal’, in ibid. II, 44, October–December 1970, pp. 733–58; Foster, Philip, ‘Ethnicity and the Schools in Ghana’, in Comparative Education Review, VI, 2, 10 1962, pp. 127–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and ‘Secondary Schooling and Social Mobility in a West African Nation’, in Sociology of Education, 37, 2, Winter 1963, pp. 150–71Google Scholar, and Education and Social Change; Olson, J. B., ‘Educational Change in Kenya, 1961–1968’, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1974Google Scholar, and ‘Secondary Schools and Elites in Kenya: a comparative study of students in 1961 and 1968’, in Comparative Education Review, XVI, 1, 1972, pp. 44–53Google Scholar; and Swindell, K., ‘The Provision of Secondary Education and Migration to School in Sierra Leone’, in Sierra Leone Geographical Journal (Freetown), 14, 1970, pp. 10–19Google Scholar.

^{page 211 note 2} Foster, , Education and Social Change, p. 241Google Scholar.

^{page 212 note 1} Ibid. p. 253; Olson, , ‘Secondary Schools and Elites’, p. 51Google Scholar; and Weis, L., ‘Education and the Reproduction of Inequality’, in Comparative Education Review, XXIII, 1, 02 1979, pp. 41–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

^{page 212 note 2} Clignet and Foster, ‘La Prééminence’, and Eliou, ‘Scolarité primaire’.

^{page 213 note 1} Clignet, and Foster, , The Fortunate Few; 1Google Scholar. Addae-Mensah, I., Djangmah, J. S., and Agbenyega, C. O., Family Background and Educational Opportunities in Ghana (Legon, 1973)Google Scholar; and Bibby, J. and Peil, M., ‘Secondary Education in Ghana: private enterprise and social selection’, in Sociology of Education, 47, 3, 1974, pp. 399–418CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

^{page 213 note 2} Principal studies are Beckett, P. A. and O'Connell, J., Education and Power in Nigeria (New York, 1978)Google Scholar; Bibby, J., ‘The Social Base of Ghanaian Education: is it broadening?’, in British Journal of Sociology (London), XXIV, 2, 1973, pp. 315–74Google ScholarDias, P. V., Hanf, T., Heimer, F. W., and Rideout, W. M., Les Étudiants universitaires congolais (Frankfurt, 1971)Google Scholar; Goldthorpe, J. E., An African Elite: Makerere College students, 1922–1960 (Nairobi, 1965)Google Scholar; Hanna, W. J., ‘Students, Universities, and Political Outcomes’, in University Students and African Politics (New York, 1975)Google Scholar; Jahoda, G., ‘The Social Background of a West African Student Population’, in British Journal of Sociology, 5, 1954–1955, pp. 355–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Marvick, D., ‘African University Students: a presumptive elite’, in Coleman, J. S. (ed.), Education and Political Development (Princeton, 1965), pp. 463–97Google Scholar; O'Connell, J. and Beckett, P. A., ‘Some Characteristics of an Elite in Formation: the case of Nigerian university students’, in British Journal of Sociology, XXVI, 3, 1975, pp. 309–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar; M. Peil, ‘Ghanaian University Students: the broadening base’, in ibid. XVI, 1, 1965, pp. 19–28; R. W. Wyllie, ‘Ghanaian University Students: a research note’, in ibid. XVII, 3, 1966, pp. 306–11; Prewiti, K., ‘Education and Social Equality in Kenya’, in Court, D. and Ghai, D. (eds.), Education and Society and Development (Nairobi, 1974), pp. 199–216Google Scholar; H. H., and Smythe, M. M., The New Nigerian Elite (Stanford, 1960)Google Scholar; and van den Berghe, P., ‘An African Elite Revisited’, in Mawazo (kampala), 1, 4, 12 1968, pp. 57–71Google Scholar, ‘Some Characteristics of University of Ibadan Students’, in Nigerian Journal of Social and Economic Studies (Ibadan), 1969, pp. 355–76Google Scholar, and Power and Privilege at an African University (Cambridge, 1973)Google Scholar.

^{page 214 note 1} For an exchange on this issue, see Hurd, C. E. and Johnson, T. J., ‘Education and Social Mobility in Ghana’, in Sociology of Education, 40, 1, Winter 1967, pp. 55–79Google Scholar and Philip Foster, ‘Comments on Hurd and Johnson’, in ibid. 41, I, Winter 1968, pp. 111–15.

^{page 215 note 1} Weis, loc. cit.

^{page 215 note 2} Jahoda, loc. cit.

^{page 215 note 3} Peil, ‘Ghanaian University Students’.

^{page 215 note 4} van den Berghe, ‘Some Characteristics of University of Ibadan Students’.

^{page 215 note 5} Goldthorpe, op. cit.

^{page 215 note 6} van den Berghe, ‘An African Elite Revisited’.

^{page 215 note 7} Currie, Op. Cit.

^{page 216 note 1} Clignet, Rémi and Foster, Philip, ‘Potential Elites in Ghana and the Ivory Coast: a preliminary comparison’, in American Journal of Sociolog, (Chicago), Lxx, 3, 11 1964, pp. 349–62Google Scholar.

^{page 216 note 2} Clignet, Rémi, ‘Ethnicity, Social Differentiation and Secondary Schooling in West Africa’, in Cahiers d'études africaines, VII, 26, 1967, pp. 360–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

^{page 216 note 3} Foster, Phlip, ‘Social Selection and Education in Ghana and the Ivory Coast’, in Fischer, J. (ed.), The Social Sciences and the Comparative Study of Educational Systems (Scranton, Penn., 1970), pp. 221–39Google Scholar.

^{page 217 note 1} The exams may be fairly administered, but this is not to say that they are efficient or equitable. For commentaries, see Irvine, S. H., ‘Selection for Secondary Schools in Southern Rhodesia’, University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Salisbury, Occasional Paper No. 4, 1965Google Scholar; also Somerset, H. C. A., Predicting Success in the School Certificate (Nairobi, 1968)Google Scholar, and ‘Who Goes to Secondary School? Relevance, Reliability and Equity in Secondary School Selection’, in Court and Ghai (eds.), op. cit. pp. 149–84.

^{page 217 note 2} Notably Coleman, J. et al. Equality of Educational Opportunity (Washington, 1966)Google Scholar, and Jencks, C. et al. Inequality: a reassessment of the effects of family and schooling in America (New York, 1972)Google Scholar.

^{page 218 note 1} See Farrell, J. P., ‘A Review of Jencks Inequality’, in Comparative Education Review, XVIII, 3, 10 1974, pp. 430–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and also Alexander, L. and Simmons, J., ‘The Determinants of School Achievement in Developing Countries: the educational production function’, Washington, World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 201, 1975Google Scholar.

^{page 218 note 2} Lloyd, Barbara, ‘The Intellectual Development of Yoruba Children: a re-examination’, in Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology (Bellingham, Wash.), II, 1, 03 1971, pp. 29–38Google Scholar, and ‘Education and Family Life in the Development of Class Identification Among the Yoruba’, in Lloyd, P. C. (ed.), The New Elites of Tropical Africa (London, 1966), pp. 163–83Google Scholar.

^{page 219 note 1} Heyneman, S., ‘Influences on Academic Achievement in Uganda: a Coleman report from a non-industrial society’, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1975Google Scholar, and ‘A Brief Note on the Relationship Between Socio-Economic Status and Test Performance Among Ugandan Primary School Children’, in Comparative Education Review, XX, 1, 02 1976, pp. 42–7Google Scholar.

^{page 219 note 2} Murphree, B. J., ‘Factors Influencing the Aspirations and Achievement of Secondary School Pupils in Rhodesia’, First Congress of Sociologists in Southern Africa, Durban. 1973Google Scholar.

^{page 219 note 3} Indeed, there is some evidence to support this hypothesis. At least three studies have shown that the less an ethnic group is proportionately represented in the educational system, the more atypical of that group as a whole is the student sample: Foster and Clignet, The Fortunate Few, Lloyd, P. C., Power and Independence, p. 107Google Scholar, and Beckett and O'Connell, op. cit.

^{page 221 note 1} See Fallers, L. A., ‘Equality, Modernity and Democracy in the New States’, in Geertz, C. (ed.), Old Societies and New States (Glencoe, 1963), p. 180Google Scholar, ‘Social Stratification and Economic Processes in Africa’, in Bendix and Lipset (eds), op. cit. pp. 147–9, and Inequality: social stratification reconsidered (Chicago, 1973), p. 29Google Scholar.

^{page 221 note 2} See Elkan, W., ‘Is a Proletariat Emerging in Nairobi?’, in Economic Development and Cultural Change (Chicago), XXIV, 4, 07 1976, pp. 695–706Google Scholar; Goody, J., ‘Class and Marriage in Africa’, in American Journal of Sociology, 76, 4, 01 1971, pp. 585–603CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Miller, R., ‘Elite Formation in Africa: class, culture, and coherence’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, XII, 4, 12 1974, pp. 521–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tardits, C., ‘Réflexions sur le probléme de la scolorisation des filles au Dahomey’, in Cahiers d'études africaines, III, 10, 1963, pp. 266–81Google Scholar, and ‘Parenté et classe sociale à Porto Novo’, in Lloyd, (ed.), The New Elites of Tropical Africa, pp. 184–98Google Scholar.

^{page 221 note 3} I have recently come across an independent confirmation of this thesis. In his psychological studies in Rhodesia, S. H. Irvine found that the greatest influence on the achievement scores of African secondary-school students was the quality of the institution attended, and then predicted that the effect on performance would decrease and the relation of test scores to environmental social factors would increase – i.e. African Societies would more closely resemble their western counterparts. See ‘Towards a Rationale for Testing Attainments and Abilities in Africa’, in British Journal of Educational Psychology (Edinburgh), XXXVI, 1, 02 1966, pp. 24–32Google Scholar, and ‘A Five-Year Follow-Up of Secondary School Selection Procedures in Central Africa, 1962–1967’, in ibid. XXXVIII, 2, June 1968, pp. 208–11.

^{page 221 note 4} Heyneman, S., ‘Influence on Academic Achievement: a comparison of results from Uganda and more industrialized societies’, in Sociology of Education, 49, 3, 07 1976, pp. 200–11CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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^{page 225 note 1} Peil, ‘Aspirations and Social Structure’.

^{page 225 note 2} See McQueen, ‘Unemployment and Future Orientations of Nigerian School-Leavers’.

^{page 226 note 1} See Currie, J. and van Maas, J., ‘Uganda's 1971 Secondary School Graduates: postponement of labour market entry’, in Manpower and Unemployment Research in Africa, VII, 1, 04 1974, pp. 14–31Google Scholar.

^{page 226 note 2} See, for example, K. Besanzon, ‘Survey of Middle Continuation School Leavers’, Ministry of Education, Accra, n.d.

^{page 226 note 3} See Peil, M., ‘The Apprenticeship System in Accra’, in Africa, XL, 2, 04 1970, pp. 137–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

^{page 226 note 4} Recent studies have afforded valuable insights into the employment Situation: Anderson, J., ‘Primary Leavers in Progressive Rural Areas in Kenya’, in Teacher Education (London), VIII, 02 1968, pp. 201–14Google Scholar; Moock, J. L., ‘Pragmatism and the Primary School’, in Africa, 43, 4, 10 1973, p. 302CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wallace, T., ‘Working in Rural Buganda: a study of young people in rural villages’, in The African Review (Dar es Salaam), III, 1, 1973, pp. 133–78Google Scholar; Wallace, C. and Weeks, S., Success or Failure in Rural Uganda (Kampala, 1975)Google Scholar; and Weeks, S. G., ‘Where Are All the jobs? The Informal Sector in Bugisu, Uganda’, in The African Review, III, 1, 1973, pp. 111–32Google Scholar.

^{page 227 note 1} Hinchliffe, K., ‘The Unprofitability of Secondary Modern Schooling in the Western Region of Nigeria’, in West African Journal of Education (Ibadan), XIV, 1970, pp. 180–2Google Scholar, and ‘A Comparative Analysis of Educational Development in Ghana and the Western Region of Nigeria’, in Nigerian Journal of Social and Economic Studies, XII, 1970, pp. 103–13Google Scholar.

^{page 227 note 2} See Besanzon, K., Secondary School Leaver Research Project: report of the pilot project (Accra, 1971)Google Scholar; Kinyanjui, P. K., ‘Education, Training and Employment of Secondary School-Leavers in Kenya’, in Education in Eastern Africa (Nairobi), 2, 1971, pp. 3–21Google Scholar; Okedara, J. J., ‘The Relationships between Unemployment of Primary and Secondary School Graduates and the Socio-Economic Status of their Parents in Ibadan, Nigeria’, in International Review of Modern Sociology (New Delhi), I, 1, 03 1971, pp. 1–11Google Scholar.

^{page 227 note 3} Besanzon, K., Survey of University of Ghana Graduates, 1973 (Accra, 1973)Google Scholar.

^{page 228 note 1} Fields, G. S., ‘Higher Education and Income Distribution in a Less Developed Country’, in Oxford Economic Papers, XXVII, 2, 07 1975, pp. 245–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and ‘Private Returns and Social Equity in the Financing of Higher Education’, in Court and Ghai (eds.), op. cit. pp. 187–97; Godfrey, E. M., ‘The Economics of an African University’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, IV, 3, 12 1966, pp. 435–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hinchliffe, K., ‘The Rate of Return to Education in Ghana’, in Economic Bulletin of Ghana (Accra), 2nd Series, 1, 2, 1971, pp. 45–58Google Scholar; Hoerr, O. D., ‘Educational Returns and Educational Reform in Ethiopia’, in East African Economic Review (Nairobi), VI, 2, 12 1974 pp. 18–34Google Scholar; Rogers, D. C., ‘Student Loan Programs and the Returns to Investment in Higher Levels of Education in Kenya’, in Economic Development and Cultural Change (Chicago), XX, 2, 01 1972, pp. 243–59Google Scholar; Hugon, P., ‘L'Ensignement enjeu de la competition sociale a Madagascar’, in Tiers-Monde, XV, 50–60, 07–12 1974, pp. 491–510Google Scholar; and M. Eliou, ‘La Fuite en Avant dans l'enseignement supérienre: le boursiers congolais’, in ibid. pp. 567–82.

^{page 228 note 2} Knight, J. B., ‘The Determination of Wages and Salaries in Uganda’, in Bulletin of the Oxford University Institute of Economics and Statistics, XXIX, 3, 08 1967, pp. 233–64Google Scholar, and ‘Earnings, Employment, Education and Income Distribution in Uganda’, in ibid. XXX, 4, November 1968, pp. 267–97.

^{page 230 note 1} See Lloyd, , Power and Independence, p. 114Google Scholar.

^{page 230 note 2} Foster, , Education and Social Change in Ghana, p. 248Google Scholar.

^{page 230 note 3} M. Hultin and J. P. Jallade, using baseline data that resembled the African situation, calculated that to increase primary enrolments from 50 to 90 per cent, secondary from 10 to 27 per cent, and university from 2 to 4·9 per cent over a decade, would raise aggregate capital and recurrent educational costs to 15 per cent of G.N.P. and 62 per cent of public revenues; ‘Costing and Financing Education in the LDCs: current issues’, Washington, World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 216, 1975.

^{page 231 note 1} See Fagbulu, A. M., ‘Private Proprietorship of School in Western Nigeria’, in Africa Today (Denver), 14, 1967, pp. 25–7Google Scholar; J. J. Lukenge, ‘Who Goes to Private Schools in Uganda: patterns of social recruitment to a second chance academic alternative’, Kampala, n.d. As regards Ghana, A. Mensah et al. op. cit. have shown that ‘special school’ students gain secondary-school places far out of proportion to their representation in the primary system.

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^{page 231 note 3} Price, Robert M., ‘The Pattern of Ethnicity in Ghana: a research note’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, XI, 3, 09 1973, pp. 470–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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^{page 232 note 3} Alexander, K. L. and Eckland, B. K., ‘Effects of Education on the Social Mobility of High School Sophomores Fifteen Years Later (1955–1970)’, WashingtonD.C., Final Report on Project No. 10202, NIE Grant OEG-4-71-0037Google Scholar.

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^{page 234 note 1} For an excellent discussion of this issue, see Windham, D. M., ‘The Macro-Planning of Education: why it fails, why it survives, and the alternatives’, in Comparative Education Review (Los Angeles), XIX, 2, 06 1975, pp. 187–201Google Scholar.

^{page 234 note 2} Foster, P., ‘Dilemmas of Educational Development: what we might learn from the past’, in Brammal, J. and May, R. J. (eds.), Education in Melanesia (Canberra, 1975), pp. 15–38Google Scholar, and Comparative Education Review, XIX, 3, October 1975, pp. 375–92.

^{page 234 note 3} A summary of existing research on private and social rates of return to schooling shows that these are almost uniformly higher at the primary than at the secondary or tertiary levels in most less-developed nations. Cf. Psacharopoulos, G., Returns of Education (San Francisco, 1973)Google Scholar.

^{page 235 note 1} It should be remembered that there are affluent minorities in less-developed and poorer majorities in more-developed regions. There is always the danger that special subventions to the former will be disproportionately utilised by the affluent minority. This raises the general principle that where aid is to be given it should be, as far as possible, directed at individuals rather than collectivities. The tendency to base social policy on aggregates, be they ethnic or regional groups, always raises the question that subventions will find their way into the ‘wrong hands’.