^{Page 127 note 1} Guyer, Jane I., ‘The Food Economy and French Colonial Rule in Central Cameroon’, in The Journal of African History (Cambridge), 19, 4, 1978, pp. 577–97.Google Scholar

^{Page 127 note 2} Roberts, Richard, ‘The Emergence of a Grain Market in Bamako, 1883–1908’, in Canadian Journal of African Studies (Ottawa), 14, 1, 1980, pp. 37–54.Google Scholar

^{Page 127 note 3} Meillassoux, Claude, ‘A Class Analysis of the Bureaucratic Process in Mali’, in The Journal of Development Studies (London), 6, 1970, pp. 97–110.Google Scholar

^{Page 128 note 1} Campbell, Bonnie, ‘Social Change and Class Formation in a French West African State’, in Canadian Journal of African Studies, 8, 1974, pp. 285–306.Google Scholar The concepts of class and élite have also been contrasted by Kitching, Gavin, ‘The Concept of Class and the Study of Africa’, in The African Review, (Dar es Salaam), 2, 1972, pp. 327–50.Google Scholar

^{Page 128 note 2} Rivière, Marcel, ‘Classes et stratifications sociales en Afrique noire’, in Cahiers internationaux de sociologie (Paris), 59, 1975, pp. 285–314.Google Scholar

^{Page 128 note 3} Wallerstein, Immanuel, ‘Social Conflict in Post-Independence Black Africa: the concepts of race and status group reconsidered’, in Campbell, E. Q. (ed.) Racial Tensions in National Identity (Nashville, 1972).Google Scholar

^{Page 128 note 4} See also the view by Berry, Sara, ‘Rural Class Formation in West Africa’, in Bates, R. H. and Lofchie, M. F. (eds.), Agricultural Development in Africa (New York, 1980), pp. 401–24.Google Scholar

^{Page 128 note 5} Amin, Samir, Le Monde des affaires sénégalais (Paris, 1969).Google Scholar

^{Page 128 note 6} O'Brien, Rita Cruise, ‘Lebanese Entrepreneurs in Senegal: economic integration and the politics of protection’, in Cahiers d'études africaines (Paris), 57, 1975, pp. 95–115.Google Scholar

^{Page 129 note 1} For the trade in Cattle, see Cohen, Abner, Custom and Politics in Urban Africa: a study of Hausa migrants in Yoruba towns (Berkeley, 1969),Google Scholar and Hill, Polly, Studies in Rural Capitalism in West Africa (Cambridge, 1970);Google Scholar for kola and dried fish, see Lovejoy, Paul E.. ‘The Kambarin Beriberi: the formation of a specialized group of Hausa kola traders in the nineteenth century’, in The Journal of African History, 14, 4, 1973, pp. 633–51,Google Scholar and Amselle, Jean-Loup, Les Négociants de la Savane: histoire et organisation sociale des Kooroko (Mali) (Paris, 1977).Google Scholar There are several studies of the early West African trade and its transformation under the impact of the monetary economy. See, for example, the ‘Introduction’ and other chapters in Meillassoux, Claude (ed.), The Development of Indigenous Trade and Markets in West Africa (London, 1971).Google Scholar

^{Page 129 note 2} Meillassoux, , 1970, loc. cit.Google Scholar

^{Page 130 note 1} Guyer, , loc. cit.Google Scholar

^{Page 130 note 2} Roberts, , loc. cit.Google Scholar

^{Page 130 note 3} See Skinner, Elliott P., ‘Trade and Markets among the Mossi People’, in Bohannan, Paul and Dalton, George (eds.), Markets in Africa (Evanston, 1962).Google Scholar

^{Page 130 note 4} Crozat, François, ‘Rapport du docteur Crozat sur sa mission au Mossi’, in Journal officiel de la république française (Paris), 270–4, 1891, pp. 4794–850 passim.Google Scholar

^{Page 130 note 5} Heritier, Françoise, ‘Des Cauries et des hommes’, in Maillassoux, Claude (ed.), L'Esclavage en Afrique précolonial (Paris, 1975), pp. 477–508;Google Scholar and Saul, Mahir, ‘Beer, Sorghum and Women: production for the market in rural Upper Volta’, in Africa (London), 51, 3, 1981, pp. 746–64.Google Scholar

^{Page 130 note 6} Poussi, Marcel, ‘Ouagadougou, capital de la Haute-Volta: esquisse historique et sociologique’, in Notes et documents voltaïques (Ouagadougou), 8, 4, 1975, pp. 21–38.Google Scholar

^{Page 131 note 1} The six were: Compagnie française de l'Afrique occidentale, Société commerciale de l'ouest africain, Peyrissac, Société commerciale et industrielle de la Côte d'Afrique, Comptoire de l'aulomobile, du matériel industriel, du cycle et de l'outillage, and La Compagnie du Niger français (a subsidiary of Unilever). D. Bollinger, ‘Étude des circuits de distribution de la Haute-Volta: situation actuelle et projets de reformes’, Suresnes, 1973, p. 18.Google Scholar

^{Page 132 note 1} See Izard, Michel, ‘Les Yarse et le commerce dans le Yatênga pré-colonial’, in Meillassoux, op. cit. pp. 214–27;Google ScholarPerson, Yves, Samori: une révolution Dyula, Vol. 1 (Dakar, 1968), pp. 89–129;Google Scholar and for the Zara, Le Moal, Guy, Les Bobo-nature et fonction des masques (Paris, 1980), pp. 16–27.Google Scholar

^{Page 132 note 2} Initiation in the world of affairs by extended service to an established merchant, with whom one establishes personal relations, is common in West Africa. See, for example, Yusuf, Ahmed Beita, ‘Capital Formation and Management among the Muslim Hausa Traders of Kano, Nigeria’, in Africa (London), 45, 2, 1975, pp. 167–82.Google Scholar

^{Page 132 note 3} Bâ, Hampaté Amadou, L'Étrange destin de Wangrin (Paris, 1973), pp. 68–76.Google Scholar

^{Page 133 note 1} Roberts, , loc. cit.Google Scholar

^{Page 133 note 2} Ibid.

^{Page 133 note 3} The regulations introduced pay by the hour, minimum wages, social security, all supported and monitored by active labour unions, and resulting in a smaller gap between colonial and metropolitan wages. Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine, ‘L'Impact des intérêts coloniaux: S.C.O.A. et C.F.A.O. dans l'ouest africain, 1910–1965’, in The Journal of African History, XVI, 4, 1975, pp. 595–621.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{Page 134 note 1} Bauer, P. T., West African Trade (London, 1963), p. 128.Google Scholar

^{Page 134 note 2} Winder, R. Bayly, ‘The Lebanese in West Africa’, in Comparative Studies in Society and History (Cambridge), 4, 1962, pp. 296–33.Google Scholar

^{Page 134 note 3} Colonial administrators parcelled out large zones which today are the business districts of Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso, by tracing wide streets and sometimes forcibly removing the previous inhibitants. Some farming areas in the vicinity of cities were closed for other reasons. For example, Dinderesso, where the farms of the people of Tounouma in Bobo-Dioulasso were situated, was declared a protected forest.

^{Page 135 note 1} Coquery-Vidrovitch, , loc. cit.Google Scholar

^{Page 135 note 2} This was sometimes due to the establishment of government export-trade structures – for Senegal, see Amin, op. cit., and for The Gambia, see Appleby, Gordon, ‘Marketplace Development in the Gambia River Basin’, in Plattner, S. (ed.), Markets and Marketing (Lanham, 1985), pp. 79–97.Google Scholar

^{Page 136 note 1} Skinner, Elliott P., ‘The Changing Status of the “Emperor of the Mossi” under Colonial Rule and since Independence’, in Crowder, Michael and Ikime, Obaro (eds.), West African Chiefs: their changing status under colonial rule and independence (New York and Ile-Ife, 1970), pp. 98–123.Google Scholar

^{Page 136 note 2} Somé, Catherine, ‘Sociologie du pouvoir militaire: le cas de la Haute Volta’, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Bordeaux, 1979.Google Scholar

^{Page 136 note 3} Bassolet, François Djoby, Evolution de la Haute Volta de 1898 au 3 janvier 1966 (Ouagadougou, 1968), pp. 52 and 77.Google Scholar

^{Page 136 note 4} Skinner, , ‘The Changing Status of the “Emperor of the Mossi”’, pp. 114–16.Google Scholar

^{Page 137 note 1} Berg, Elliot, ‘Upper Volta’, in Comité inter-états de lutte contre la sécheresse dans le Sahel, Marketing, Price Policy and Storage of Food Grains in the Sahel: a survey, Vol. 2, Country Studies (Ann Arbor, 1977), p. 10.Google Scholar

^{Page 137 note 2} Skinner, , ‘The Changing Status of the “Emperor of the Mossi”’, and Somé, op. cit.Google Scholar

^{Page 137 note 3} Somé, op. cit. pp. 177 and 199.Google Scholar

^{Page 138 note 1} Ibid. pp. 289–91.

^{Page 138 note 2} Wilcock, David D., ‘The Political Economy of Grain Marketing and Storage in the Sahel’, Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 1978, p. 203.Google Scholar

^{Page 138 note 3} One U.S. dollar was equivalent to about 400 C.F.A. francs in 1984.

^{Page 139 note 1} For the importance of bank credit for the emerging local business group in Senegal, see Amin, op. cit. pp. 174–9.

^{Page 140 note 1} Somé, op. cit. pp. 195–7.

^{Page 141 note 1} The merchants are not alone in this pursuit. Investment in real estate is also very popular among civil servants, and at a smaller scale among less wealthy groups in the society. Those who cannot afford villas build compounds where families or bachelors can rent rooms. The sky-rocketing prices in urban real estate, as well as the rent which becomes a profitable return in the absence of alternative avenues for investment, make this an attractive option. Indeed, owners are to be found even in the surrounding villages (such as Bare, 30 km from the city) among those who have regular incomes, such as ex-servicemen on pension. The régime headed by Captain Sankara, however, has recently changed the situation in favour of tenants, notably by the decision that rent, during the year 1985, will not be paid by citizens, but only by foreigners and organisations to the Government. The situation described here is mainly based on information relating to the period before the August 1983 revolution. The measures of the current régime may transform Burkina Faso in a radical fashion, but the short time-span makes an evaluation of the new strategy difficult.

^{Page 142 note 1} For a brief recapitulation of recent political developments in Burkina Faso, as well as an evaluation of the transformation brought about by the revolution of August 1983, see the special issue of Politique africaine (Paris), 20, 12 1985, including articles by Pascal Labazée, Claudette Savonnet-Guyot, Claude Dubuch, Christine Benabdesadok, Bernard Tallet, and Yves-André Fauré.Google Scholar

^{Page 143 note 1} See Wilcock, op. cit.

^{Page 144 note 1} Ouedraogo, Marie-Michèle, ‘Origine des céréales consommées à Ouagadougou et problèmes de commercialisation’, in Notes et documents voltaïques, 8, 1, 1974, pp. 16–27.Google Scholar

^{Page 144 note 2} Berg, loc. cit. p. 14.

^{Page 146 note 1} Sherman, Jacqueline, ‘Grain Markets and the Marketing Behavior of Farmers: a case study of Manga, Upper Volta’, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1984, p. 111.Google Scholar

^{Page 147 note 1} Bonkian, Adama, ‘Les Structures du marché et le prix des céréales dans deux villages du centre de la Haute-Volta’, Ouagadougou, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, 1982, Études villageoises, No. 8, p. 7.Google Scholar

^{Page 151 note 1} Cf. a similar system called ‘waybill’ by J. O. C. Onyemelukwe who describes it for Onitsha, Nigeria. Quoted by Jones, William O., ‘Some Economic Dimensions of Agricultural Marketing Research’, in Smith, C. A. (ed.), Regional Analysis, Vol. 1, Economic Systems (New York, 1976), pp. 303–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar