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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 November 2008
After yet another period of unrest and spreading resistance among the black majority, the Pretoria régime struck back in February 1988. Seventeen organisations that had manoeuvred precariously on the margins of legal toleration were summarily banned – that is, prohibited from ‘carrying on or performing any activities or act whatever’–many of their leaders were detained, while the survivors were harried underground.
1 The use of the term ‘back’ refers as a group to those classified racially by the state as Africans, Coloureds, and Indians.
2 Africa News (Durham, N.C.), 7 03 1988, p. 2.Google Scholar
3 We recognise that the notion of a revolution beginning at a specific date is ambiguous and somewhat arbitrary.
4 Huntington, Samuel P., Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven and London, 1968), ch. 5.Google Scholar
5 Ash, Timothy Garton, ‘Revolution in Hungary and Poland’, in New York Review of Books, 36, 13, 17 08 1989, pp. 9–15.Google Scholar
6 Tilly, Charles, ‘Town and Country in Revolution’, in Lewis, John Wilson (ed), Peasant Rebellion and Communist Revolution in Asia (Stanford, 1974), p. 302.Google Scholar
7 Rule, James B., Theories of Civil Violence (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1988), pp. 259–60.Google Scholar
8 See McAdam, Doug, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970 (Chicago, 1982),Google ScholarTilly, Charles, From Mobilisation to Revolution (Reading, Mass., 1978),Google Scholar and Skocpol, Theda, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge, 1979).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
9 McAdam, op. cit. p. 43.
10 Ibid. pp. 45–8.
11 Ibid. pp. 55N6.
12 Ibid. pp. 56–7.
13 Molteno, Frank, ‘The Historical Foundations of the Schooling of Black South Africans’, in Peter, Kallaway (ed.), Apartheid and Education: the education of black South Africans (Johannesburg, 1984).Google Scholar
14 Hirson, Baruch, Year of Fire, Year of Ash– The Soweto Revolt: roots of a revolution (London, 1979),Google Scholar Kallaway (ed.), op. cit., and Nkomo, Mokubung O., ‘The Contradictions of Bantu Education’, in Harvard Educational Review (Cambridge, Mass.), 51, 1981, pp. 126–38.Google Scholar
15 Wolpe, Harold, ‘Educational Resistance’, in John, Lonsdale (ed.), South Africa in Question (Cambridge, 1988), p. 202.Google Scholar
16 See Christe, Pam and Collins, Colin, ‘Bantu Education: apartheid education or labour reproduction?’, in Comparative Education (Abingdon, Oxfordshire), 18, 1982, pp. 71–2, and Hirson, op. cit. pp. 40–59.Google Scholar
17 Hirson, op. cit. pp. 47–50, and Wolpe, loc. cit. pp. 201–2.
18 In 1975 the 13-year school structure for Africans was reduced to 12 years by dropping standard 6, which was unique to African schools. The four stages of education are: (1) lower primary: sub-standards A and B and standards 1 and 2; (2) higher primary: standards 3 to 5 (and before 1975, standard 6); (3) junior secondary: forms I to III; and (4) senior secondary (sometimes called high schools): forms IV and V.
19 Bundy, Colin, ‘Street Sociology and Pavement Politics: aspects of youth and student resistance in Cape Town, 1985’, in Journal of Southern African Studies (Oxford), 13, 1987, p. 311.Google Scholar
20 Hirson, op. cit. pp. 94–9, and Hyslop, Jonathan, ‘School Student Movements and State Education Policy: 1972–87’, in William, Cobbett and Robin, Cohen (eds.), Popular Struggles in South Africa, (London and Trenton, 1988), pp. 184–6.Google Scholar
21 Hirson, op. cit., Hyslop, loc. cit. pp. 184–6, and Wolpe, loc. cit. p. 203.
22 Hyslop, loc. cit. pp. 187–8.
23 Greenberg, Stanley B., Legitimating the Illegitimate: state, markets, and resistance in South Africa (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1987), p. 186.Google Scholar
24 Hyslop, loc. cit. pp. 190–2.
25 Davis, Stephen M., Apartheid's Revels: inside South Africa's hidden war (New Haven and London, 1987), pp. 86–115.Google Scholar
26 The examination issue was particularly heated in Atteridgeville, near Pretoria, where students claimed to have found ungraded answer-papers. Hyslop, loc. cit. p. 192, Mathonsi, Elmon Ngabeni, Black Matriculation Results: a mechanism of social control (Johannesburg, 1988), and Wolpe, loc. cit. p. 206.Google Scholar
27 Hyslop, loc. cit. pp. 193–6, and Molobi, Eric, ‘South Africa: education under apartheid’, in University of the Western Cape, People's Education: a collection of articles from December 1985–May1987 (Cape Town, 1988).Google Scholar
28 Hyslop, loc. cit. p. 193.
29 Ibid.
30 Ibid. pp. 195–6.
31 Ibid. p. 196.
32 Greenberg, op. cit. p. 177.
33 Kraus, Glenda, People's Education: an examination of the concept (Cape Town, 1988), p. 7, and Wolpe, loc. cit. p. 207.Google Scholar
34 Hyslop, loc. cit. pp. 197–8, Zwelakhe Sisulu, ‘People's Education for People's Power’, Keynote Address for the Second National Consultative Conference on the Crisis in Education, Durban, March 1986, in People's Education: a collection of articles, p. 113, and Wolpe, loc. cit. pp. 207–8.
35 The Soweto Civic Association was formed in 1979 by the so-called ‘Committee of Ten’, a prominent group of professionals organised in 1977 following the collapse of the Soweto Urban Bantu Council in the wake of the uprisings the previous year, and has since then been involved in various local and national resistance campaigns.
36 Hyslop, loc. cit. p. 200. See also Smangaliso Mkatshwa, ‘Keynote Address for the National Consultative Conference on the Crisis in Education’, Johannesburg, December 1985, in People's Education: a collection of articles, and Sisulu, loc. cit.
37 Kraus, op. cit. p. 10.
38 Hyslop, loc. cit. pp. 200–1, and Muller, Johan, ‘People's Education and the National Education Crisis Committee’, in South African Review (Johannesburg), 4, 1987, p. 22.Google Scholar
39 Sisulu, loc. cit. pp. 108–9.
40 Hyslop, loc. cit. p. 202, Kraus, loc. cit., and Muller, loc. cit. pp. 24–5.
41 Hyslop, loc. cit. pp. 202–4, Muller, loc. cit. pp. 25–6, and Wolpe, loc. cit. pp. 213–14.
42 According to the 1980 census, half of South Africa's population was under the age of 21; 43 per cent of Africans, 38 per cent of Coloureds, and 28 per cent of whites were under the age of 15. Bundy, loc. cit. p. 310.
43 Mathonsi, op. cit.
44 Bundy, loc. cit. p. 313.
45 The leaders of the N.E.C.C. included Eric Molobi, Vusi Khanyile, M. Tsele, Ihron Rensburg, Joyce Mabudufhasi, P. Gordham, A. Nolan, and Reverend M. A. Stofile. Keynote addresses for the two national conferences were given by Smangaliso Mkatshwa, former general secretary of the Southern African Catholic Bishops Conference, and Swelakhe Sisulu, editor of the New Nation (Johannesburg), while Desmond Tutu attended the first conference and facilitated N.E.C.C. work.