Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-09T22:32:07.101Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Regional sanctions against Burundi: the regime's argumentative self-entrapment*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 May 2015

Julia Grauvogel
Julia Grauvogel*
Affiliation:
GIGA German Institute of Global and Area Studies, Institute of African Affairs, Neuer Jungfernstieg 21, 20354 Hamburg, Germany
*
Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper examines the impact of regional sanctions on the trajectory of the Burundian regime following the 1996 coup. Despite the country's socioeconomic and geopolitical vulnerability, the Buyoya government initially withstood the pressure from sanctions. Through a vocal campaign against these measures, the new government mitigated the embargo's economic consequences and partially re-established its international reputation. Paradoxically, this campaign planted the seed for long-term comprehensive political concessions. While previous literature has attributed the embargo's success to its economic impact, the government actually responded to the sanction senders' key demand to engage in unconditional, inclusive peace talks once the economy had already started to recover. Based on a novel framework for studying the signalling dimension of sanctions, I show how the regime's anti-sanctions campaign, with its emphasis on the government's willingness to engage in peace talks, backfired, with Buyoya forced to negotiate after having become entrapped in his own rhetoric.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Modern African Studies , Volume 53 , Issue 2 , June 2015 , pp. 169 - 191
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

This paper is a product of the GIGA research project ‘Ineffective Sanctions? External Sanctions and the Persistence of Autocratic Regimes’, which is funded by the Fritz Thyssen Foundation (grant number: 10·11·1·155). I would like to thank Michael Brzoska, Ntagahoraho Burihabwa, Gordon Crawford, Sinja Hantscher, Christian von Soest and the two anonymous reviewers as well as the participants of the doctoral colloquium at the Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy, Hamburg and of the research colloquium of the Chair for Global Governance at the University of Münster led by Markus Lederer for their insightful comments and constructive criticism.

References

REFERENCES

Allen, S.H. 2005. ‘The determinants of economic sanctions success and failure’, International Interactions 31, 2: 117–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldwin, D.A. 1999. ‘The sanctions debate and the logic of choice’, International Security 24, 3: 80–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banque de la République du Burundi (BRB). 1996. Rapport Annuel. Bujumbura: BRB.Google Scholar
Banque de la République du Burundi (BRB). 1998. Rapport Annuel. Bujumbura: BRB.Google Scholar
Barber, J. 1979. ‘Economic sanctions as a policy instrument’, International Affairs 55, 3: 367–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bentley, K.A. & Southall, R.. 2005. An African Peace Process: Mandela, South Africa and Burundi. Cape Town: HSRC Press.Google Scholar
Bolks, S.M. & Al-Sowayel, D.. 2000. ‘How long do economic sanctions last? Examining the sanctioning process through duration’, Political Research Quarterly 53, 2: 241–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyer, J. 1996. Burundi Pleads for Lifting of Embargo. <http://reliefweb.int/report/burundi/burundi-pleads-lifting-embargo>, accessed 15.1.2015.,+accessed+15.1.2015.>Google Scholar
Brachet, J. & Wolpe, H.. 2005. ‘Conflict-sensitive development assistance: the case of Burundi’. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Brandstetter, R.H. 2004. ‘Burundi: a broken country, a broken state’, in Legun, C., ed. African Contemporary Record. New York, NY: Holmes and Meier.Google Scholar
Bratton, M. & van de Walle, N.. 1994. ‘Neopatrimonial regimes and political transitions in Africa’, World Politics 46, 4: 453–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruderlein, C. 1998. ‘Coping with the humanitarian impact of sanctions: an OCHA perspective’. New York, NY: OCHA.Google Scholar
Bulletin Officiel du Burundi (BOB). 1997a. Décret No. 100/106 du 5 Septembre 1997 portant harmonisation des Statut d'AIR BURUNDI-S.P. avec le code des sociétés privées et publiques. Bujumbura: BOB.Google Scholar
Bulletin Officiel du Burundi (BOB). 1997b. Ordonnance Ministérielle No. 120/284 portant agrément de la Société Interpetrol comme entreprises prioritaire. Bujumbura: BOB.Google Scholar
Bunting, I., Mwansasu, B. & Bugoya, W.. 1999. Overview of the Burundi Peace Process. Dar es Salaam: Mwalimu Nyerere Foundation.Google Scholar
Burundi, Büro, 1997. Communiqué de presse 139. Bonn.Google Scholar
Buyoya, P. 2011. The Inter-Burundian Negotiations: A long walk towards peace. Paris: L'Harmattan.Google Scholar
Calmeyn, S., Musabyimana, T. & Reychler, L.. 2000. Le Défi de la Paix au Burundi: théorie & pratique. Paris: L'Harmattan.Google Scholar
Chambre de Commerce d'Industrie, d'Agriculture et d'Artisanat du Burundi (CCIB). 1996. Note à qui de droit. Bujumbura: CCIB.Google Scholar
Comité pour la Défense des Intérêts Économiques et Sociaux (CODIES). 1996. Note sur les conséquences de l'embargo imposé au Burundi. Bujumbura: CODIES.Google Scholar
Cornwell, R. & de Beer, H.. 1999. ‘Burundi: the politics of intolerance’, African Security Review 8, 6: 84–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, N.C. & Klotz, A.. 1999. How Sanctions Work: lessons from South Africa. New York, NY: St. Martin's.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cunningham, D.E. 2011. Barriers to Peace in Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dagne, T. 1998. Burundi: Update. Washington, DC: CRS Report for Congress.Google Scholar
Daley, P. 2007. ‘The Burundi peace negotiations: an African experience of peace-making’, Review of African Political Economy 34, 112: 333–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dashti-Gibson, J., Davis, P. & Radcliff, B.. 1997. ‘On the determinants of the success of economic sanctions: an empirical analysis’, American Journal of Political Science 41, 2: 608–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dizaji, S.F. & van Bergeijk, P.. 2013. ‘Potential early phase success and ultimate failure of economic sanctions: a VAR approach with an application to Iran’, Journal of Peace Research 50, 6: 721–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doxey, M.P. 1980. Economic Sanctions and International Enforcement. London: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drury, A.C. 1998. ‘Revisiting economic sanctions reconsidered’, Journal of Peace Research 35, 4: 497–509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dupont, P. 1997. ‘La crise politique au Burundi et les efforts de médiation de la communauté internationale’. Antwerpen: L'Afrique des Grands Lacs Annuaire.Google Scholar
Early, B.R. 2009. ‘Sleeping with your friends’ enemies: an explanation of sanctions-busting trade’, International Studies Quarterly 53, 1: 49–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU). 1996. ‘Country Report Burundi’. London: EIU.Google Scholar
Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU). 1997. ‘Country Report Burundi’. London: EIU.Google Scholar
Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU). 1998. ‘Country Report Burundi’. London: EIU.Google Scholar
Escribà-Folch, A. & Wright, J.. 2010. ‘Dealing with tyranny: international sanctions and the survival of authoritarian rulers’, International Studies Quarterly 54, 2: 335–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
European Union. 1996. Declaration by the Presidency on Behalf of the EU on Burundi. <http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_PESC-96-74_en.htm>, accessed 15.1.2015.,+accessed+15.1.2015.>Google Scholar
Flyvbjerg, B. 2006. ‘Five misunderstandings about case-study research’, Qualitative Inquiry 12, 2: 219–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galtung, J. 1967. ‘On the effects of international economic sanctions: with examples from the case of Rhodesia’, World Politics 19, 3: 378–416.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giumelli, F. 2010. ‘New analytical categories for assessing EU sanctions’, International Spectator 45, 3: 131–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giumelli, F. 2011. Coercing, Constraining and Signalling: explaining and understanding international sanctions after the end of the cold war. Colchester: European Consortium for Political Research (ECPR).Google Scholar
Gomes, S. da & Ferreira, P.M.. 2001. ‘The European Union's political and development response to Burundi’, Discussion Paper 29. Maastricht: European Centre for Development Policy Management (ECDPM).Google Scholar
Goodman, R. & Jinks, D.. 2008. ‘Incomplete internalization and compliance with human rights law’, European Journal of International Law 19, 4: 725–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grauvogel, J. & von Soest, C.. 2014. ‘Claims to legitimacy count: why sanctions fail to instigate democratisation in authoritarian regimes’, European Journal of Political Research 53, 4: 635–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grebe, J. 2010. ‘And they are still targeting: assessing the effectiveness of targeted sanctions against Zimbabwe’, Africa Spectrum 45, 1: 3–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hafner-Burton, E.M., Tsutsui, K. & Meyer, J.W.. 2008. ‘International human rights law and the politics of legitimation: repressive states and human rights treaties’, International Sociology 23, 1: 115–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, R.A. 2000. ‘Democracy and the successful use of economic sanctions’, Political Research Quarterly 53, 2: 267–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hathaway, O.A. 2002. ‘Do human rights treaties make a difference?’, Yale Law Journal 11, 8: 1935–2042.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoskins, E., Nutt, S. & Watson, T.J. Jr. 1997. ‘The humanitarian impacts of economic sanctions on Burundi’, Occasional Paper, 29. Providence, RI: Watson Institute.Google Scholar
Hufbauer, G.C., Schott, J.J. & Elliott, K.A.. 1990. Economic Sanctions Reconsidered. Washington, DC: Peterson Institute of International Economics.Google Scholar
International Crisis Group (ICG). 1998. ‘Burundi under siege’. Brussels: ICG.Google Scholar
International Crisis Group (ICG). 1999. ‘Le Burundi après la suspension de l'embargo: aspects internes et régionaux’. Brussels: ICG.Google Scholar
IRIN. 1997a. Central and Eastern Africa: Weekly Round-up, 11/28/97. <http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Hornet/irin_112897.html>, accessed 16.10.2013.,+accessed+16.10.2013.>Google Scholar
IRIN. 1997b. Great Lakes: IRIN Update 71. <http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Hornet/irinin71.html>, accessed 15.1.2015.,+accessed+15.1.2015.>Google Scholar
IRIN. 1998. IRIN Background Brief on Arusha Peace Talks. <http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Hornet/irin_61098.html>, accessed 13.5.2014.,+accessed+13.5.2014.>Google Scholar
Jing, C., Kaempfer, W.H. & Lowenberg, A.D.. 2003. ‘Instrument choice and the effectiveness of international sanctions: a simultaneous equations approach’, Journal of Peace Research 40, 5: 519–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaempfer, W.H. & Lowenberg, A.D.. 1988. ‘The theory of international economic sanctions: a public choice approach’, American Economic Review 78, 4: 786–93.Google Scholar
Kamungi, P.M., Oketch, J.S. & Huggins, C.. 2005. ‘Land access and the return and resettlement of IDPs and refugees in Burundi’, in Huggins, C. & Clover, J., eds. From the Ground Up: land rights, conflict and peace in Sub-Sahara Africa. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 195–267.Google Scholar
Kerr, W.A. & Gaisford, J.D.. 1994. ‘A note on increasing the effectiveness of sanctions’, Journal of World Trade 28, 6: 169–76.Google Scholar
Khadiagala, G.M. 2003. ‘Burundi’, in Boulden, J., ed. Dealing with Conflict in Africa: the United Nations and regional organizations. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 215–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khadiagala, G.M. 2007. Meddlers or Mediators? African interveners in civil conflicts in Eastern Africa. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.Google Scholar
Kirshner, J. 1997. ‘The microfoundations of economic sanctions’, Security Studies 6, 3: 32–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laely, T. 1997. ‘Peasants, local communities, and central power in Burundi’, Journal of Modern African Studies 35, 4: 695–716.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lektzian, D. & Souva, M.. 2007. ‘An institutional theory of sanctions onset and success’, Journal of Conflict Resolution 51, 6: 848–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lemarchand, R. 1994. ‘Managing transition anarchies: Rwanda, Burundi, and South Africa in comparative perspective’, Journal of Modern African Studies 32, 4: 581–604.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lemarchand, R. 2001. ‘Foreign policy making in the Great Lakes region’, in Khadiagala, G.M. & Lyons, T., eds. African Foreign Policies: power and process. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 87–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lemarchand, R. 2007. ‘Consociationalism and power sharing in Africa: Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo’, African Affairs 106, 422: 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindsay, J.M. 1986. ‘Trade sanctions as policy instruments: a re-examination’, International Studies Quarterly 30, 2: 153–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lomasney, K. & Halperin, M.H.. 1998. ‘Guaranteeing democracy: a review of the record’, Journal of Democracy 9, 2: 134–47.Google Scholar
Longman, T.P. 1998. Proxy Targets: civilians in the war in Burundi. New York, NY: Human Rights Watch.Google Scholar
Lopez, G. & Cortright, D.. 2002. ‘Smarting under sanctions’, The World Today 58, 3: 17–18.Google Scholar
Manirakiza, M. 2007. Burundi: les écoles du crime. Bujumbura: Le Roseau Vert.Google Scholar
Maundi, M.O. 2003. ‘Preventing conflict escalation in Burundi’, in Sriram, C.L. & Wermester, K., eds. From Promise to Practice: strengthening UN Capacities for the prevention of violent conflict. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 327–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McAdam, D. 2010. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McGillivray, F. & Stam, A.C.. 2004. ‘Political institutions, coercive diplomacy, and the duration of economic sanctions’, Journal of Conflict Resolution 48, 2: 154–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLean, E.V. & Whang, T.. 2010. ‘Friends or foes? Major trading partners and the success of economic sanctions’, International Studies Quarterly 54, 2: 427–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, T.C. & Schwebach, V.L.. 1997. ‘Fools suffer gladly: The use of economic sanctions in international crises’, International Studies Quarterly 41, 1: 27–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, T.C., Bapat, N. & Krustev, V.. 2009. ‘The threat and imposition of economic sanctions, 1971–2000’, Conflict Management and Peace Science 26, 1: 92–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mthembu-Salter, G. 1999. An Assessment of Sanctions against Burundi. London: ActionAid.Google Scholar
Mthembu-Salter, G. 2002. ‘Mediation and genocide in Rwanda: Burundi's peace agreement without peace’, Track Two 11, 5&6.Google Scholar
Muñoz, A.A. 2009. ‘Transnational and domestic processes in the definition of human rights policies in Mexico’, Human Rights Quarterly 31, 1: 35–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ndikumana, L. 2000. ‘Towards a solution to violence in Burundi: a case for political and economic liberalisation’, Journal of Modern African Studies 38, 3: 431–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neethling, T. 2005. ‘Realizing the African standby force as a pan-African ideal: progress, prospects and challenges’, Journal of Military and Strategic Studies 8, 1.Google Scholar
Ngaruko, F. & Nkurunziza, J.D.. 2000. ‘An economic interpretation of conflict in Burundi’, Journal of African Economies 9, 3: 370–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ngaruko, F. & Nkurunziza, J.D.. 2005. ‘Civil war and its duration in Burundi’, in Collier, P. & Sambanis, N., eds. Understanding Civil War: Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications, 35–62.Google Scholar
Nijimbere, L. 2001. ‘Insider mediators – exploring their key role in informal peace processes: the Burundi peace process’. Berlin: Berghof Foundation.Google Scholar
Nimubona, J. 2007. ‘Le processus de paix au Burundi (1998–2005): performances et limites de l'approche instrumentale de l'ethnicité’, in Deslaurier, C. & Juhé-Beaulaton, D., eds. Afrique, Terre d'Histoire: au cœur de la recherche avec Jean-Pierre Chrétien. Paris: Karthala, 497–518.Google Scholar
Nooruddin, I. 2002. ‘Modeling selection bias in studies of sanctions efficacy’, International Interactions 28, 1: 59–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nossal, K.R. 1999. ‘Liberal democratic regimes: International sanctions and global governance’, in Väyrynen, R., ed. Globalization and Global Governance. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 127–50.Google Scholar
Nsanze, A., 2003. Le Burundi Contemporain: l’état-nation en question (1956–2002). Paris: L'Harmattan.Google Scholar
Nyamoya, P. 1997. ‘Julius Nyerere et la crise burundaise’, Bujumbura: unpublished analysis.Google Scholar
Olinga, A.D. 2005. ‘The embargo against Burundi before the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights’, African Human Rights Law Journal 5: 424–32.Google Scholar
Peterson, D. 2006. ‘A beacon for Central Africa’, Journal of Democracy 17, 1: 125–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prunier, G. 1994. ‘Burundi: a manageable crisis?’, Writenet, 252.Google Scholar
Prunier, G. 1997. ‘The geopolitical situation in the Great Lakes area in light of the Kivu crisis’, Refugee Survey Quarterly 16, 1: 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Regional Sanctions Coordination Committee (RSCC). 1996. Press release. Nairobi: RSCC.Google Scholar
ReliefWeb. 1996. Regional Foreign Ministers Meeting Press Release. <http://reliefweb.int/report/burundi/regional-foreign-ministers-meeting-press-release>, accessed 16.10.2013.,+accessed+16.10.2013.>Google Scholar
ReliefWeb. 1997. Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report No. 18. <http://reliefweb.int/report/burundi/burundi-humanitarian-situation-report-no-18>, accessed 16.10.2013.,+accessed+16.10.2013.>Google Scholar
République du Burundi. 1998. Accord Sur la Plate-Forme Politique du Régime de Transition, Bujumbura.Google Scholar
Reyntjens, F. 1993. ‘The proof of the pudding is in the eating: the June 1993 elections in Burundi’, Journal of Modern African Studies 31, 4: 563–563.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reyntjens, F. 2000. ‘Burundi: prospects for peace’. London: Minority Rights Group.Google Scholar
Reyntjens, F. 2006. ‘Briefing: Burundi: a peaceful transition after a decade of war?’, African Affairs 105, 418: 117–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Risse, T. 1999. ‘International norms and domestic change: arguing and communicative behavior in the human rights area’, Politics and Society 27, 4: 529–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Risse, T. & Sikkink, K.. 1999. ‘The socialization of international human rights norms into domestic practices: introduction’, in Risse, T., Ropp, S.C. & Sikkink, K., eds. The Power of Human Rights: international norms and domestic change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Second Regional Summit on the Burundi Conflict. 1996. Joint Communiqué. Arusha.Google Scholar
Sixth Regional Summit on the Burundi Conflict. 1998. Communiqué. Kampala.Google Scholar
Sullivan, D.P. 2005. ‘The missing pillars: a look at the failure of peace in Burundi through the lens of Arend Lijphart's theory of consociational democracy’, Journal of Modern African Studies 43, 1: 75–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tsebelis, G. 1990. ‘Are sanctions effective? A game-theoretic analysis’, Journal of Conflict Resolution 34, 3: 3–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
UCDP. 2014. Uppsala Conflict Data Program Battle-Related Deaths Dataset v.5, <www.ucdp.uu.se>, accessed 15.01.2015.,+accessed+15.01.2015.>Google Scholar
UN Commission on Human Rights. 1997. Second report on the human rights situation in Burundi submitted by the Special Rapporteur, Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro, in accordance with Commission resolution 1996/1. New York, NY: UNCHR.Google Scholar
UN Security Council (UNSC). 1996. S/Res/1072. New York, NY: UNSC.Google Scholar
Uvin, P. 1999. ‘Ethnicity and power in Burundi and Rwanda: different paths to mass violence’, Comparative Politics 31, 3: 253–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vervisch, T. & Titeca, K.. 2010. ‘Bridging community associations in post-conflict Burundi: the difficult merging of social capital endowments and new ‘institutional settings’’, Journal of Modern African Studies 48, 3: 485–511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vorrath, J. 2012. ‘Challenges of interviewing political elites: a view from the top in post-war Burundi’, in Thomson, S., Ansoms, A. & Murison, J., eds. Emotional and Ethical Challenges for Field Research in Africa: the story behind the findings. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 57–69.Google Scholar
Wohlgemuth, L. 2005. ‘African sanctions: the case of Burundi’, in Wallensteen, P. & Staibano, C., eds. International Sanctions: between words and wars in the global system. London: Frank Cass, 126–43.Google Scholar
Wolpe, H. 2011. Making Peace after Genocide: anatomy of the Burundi process. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace.Google Scholar
World Bank. 1996. World Development Indicators: Burundi. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Young, C. 1996. ‘Africa: an interim balance sheet’, Journal of Democracy 7, 3: 53–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Interviews

Frédéric Bamvuginyumvira, First Vice President of Burundi (1998–2001), Bujumbura, 19.8.2013.Google Scholar
Grégoire Banyiyezako, Governor of the Bank of the Republic of Burundi (1996–1999), Bujumbura, 2.9.2013.Google Scholar
Donatien Bihute, President of the Chamber of Commerce (1988–1997), Bujumbura, 2.9.2013.Google Scholar
Pierre Buyoya, President of the Republic of Burundi (1987–1993, 1996–2003), Bujumbura, 26.8.2013.Google Scholar
Astère Girukwigomba, Member of UPRONA's executive committee and finance minister (1998–1999), Bujumbura, 13.8.2013.Google Scholar
Albert Mbonerane, Ambassador to Germany (1993–1997) and member of the Burundi Büro, (1997–1999), Bujumbura, 10.8.2013.Google Scholar
Cyprien Mbonimpa: Minister for Foreign Affairs (1987–1992) and government spokesperson for peace and security questions during the Arusha negotiations (1996–2001), Bujumbura, 30.8.2013.Google Scholar
Alois Misago, Editorial Journalist at the Burundi Büro (1996–1999), Bujumbura, 9.8.2013.Google Scholar
Emile Mworoha, Deputy of the National Assembly (1998–2005), Bujumbura, 19.8.2013.Google Scholar
Joseph Ndayisaba, Minister for Basic Education and Alphabetization (1997–1998), Bujumbura, 16.8.2013.Google Scholar
Jérôme Ndiho, former Spokesperson of the CDNN, Bujumbura, 2.9.2013.Google Scholar
Benoit Ndorimana, Administrative general director of the assurance company SOGEAR, Bujumbura, 20.8.2013.Google Scholar
Louis Nduwimana, Employee at the UNDP during the embargo, Bujumbura, 20.8.2013.Google Scholar
Jean Marie Ngendahayo, Minister of Communications and Government Spokesman (1993), worked for the FRODEBU in exile (1995–1998), Bujumbura, 12.8.2013.Google Scholar
Léonidas Nijimbere, former colonel and principal advisor to the president for military issues (1996–2003), Bujumbura, 21.8.2013.Google Scholar
Sébastien Ntahuga, diplomatic advisor to the president Buyoya (1996–2003) and member of the sub-commission on democracy and governance during the Arusha negotiations (1996–1999), Bujumbura, 14.8.2013.Google Scholar
Sylvestre Ntibantunganya, President of the Republic of Burundi (1994–1996), Bujumbura, 26.8.2013.Google Scholar
Jean-Joseph Nyandwi, Employee at the Burundian NGO Conseil pour l’Education et le Développement (COPED) during the embargo, Bujumbura, 27.8.2013.Google Scholar