¹ Péan, Pierre, Affaires africaines (Paris, 1983), p. 20. This journalist offers a scathing analysis of franco-Gabonese collusion in high places.Google Scholar

¹ ‘Gabon: Bongo's security’, in Africa Confidential (London), 26, 30 10 1985, p. 7.Google ScholarPubMed

² Lamb, David, The Africans (New York, 1984), p. 99.Google Scholar

³ Nevertheless, it was reported that Bongo borrowed $1.2 million from Citibank in 1979 to purchase a Beverly Hills mansion for his two daughters studying in Los Angeles at the University of California; ‘Gabon: Bongo's worries’, in African Confidential, 21, 13 02 1980, p. 7.Google Scholar

⁴ Most experts believe that the Government's 1981 figure of 1.3 million is inflated. The population has been put at 800,000 by a recent United Nations census, and at only 645,000 according to the World Bank in 1980. See ‘Gabon: three different population figures’, in Africa Diary (New Delhi), 21, 22–8 10 1981, pp. 10707–8.Google Scholar

⁵ Michaud, Paul, ‘Gabon; dynamic television’, in West Africa (London), 3590, 1986, p. 1308;Google Scholar and Péan, Pierre, ‘Le Gabon à l'heure du pétrole’, in jeune Afrique (Paris), 755, 27 06 1975, p. 22.Google Scholar

¹ See Bessis, Sophie, ‘Gabon: une crise de croissance’, in Jeune Afrique, 1094, 23 12 1981, p. 25;Google ScholarDoyle, Mark, ‘Daily Coffee With President Bongo’, in West Africa, 3408, 29 11 1982, pp. 3073–4;Google Scholar and ‘Gabon: much ado about nothing’, in Africa Confidential, 24, 13 04 1983, pp. 7–8.Google Scholar

² Péan, Affaires africaines, pp. 129–65, discusses Le Clan in detail. See also ‘Gabon: French disconnection’, in Africa confidential, 23, 17 03 1982, p. 6.Google Scholar

¹ Jackson, Robert H. and Rosberg, Carl G., Personal Rule in Black Africa: prince, prophet, autocrat, tyrant (Berkeley, 1982), pp. 143–5 and 156–9. Though their analysis of Bongo is brief and makes little use of available sources, they understand him well. Other ‘autocrats’ considered are Félix Houphouët-Boigny of Côte d'Ivoire, Ahmadou Ahidjo of Cameroun, Kamuzu Banda of Malawi, and Mobutu Sese Zeko of Zaïre.Google Scholar

² Ibid. pp. 143, 156, and 159.

³ I am particularly indebted to Gardinier, David E., Historical Dictionary of Gabon (Metuchen, N.J., 1981),Google Scholar for the long period preceding Bongo's Presidency. See also Thompson, Virginia and Adloff, Richard, The Emerging States of French Equatorial Africa (Stanford, 1960), pp. 343–84;Google ScholarBallard, John, ‘Four Equatorial States’, in Carter, Gwendolen M. (ed.), National Unity and Regionalism in Eight African States (Ithaca, 1966), pp. 321–35;Google ScholarWeinstein, Brian, Gabon: nation-building on the Ogooue (Cambridge, Mass., 1966);Google ScholarDarlington, Charles F. and Darlington, Alice B., African Betrayal (New York, 1968);Google ScholarComte, Gilbert, ‘La République du Gabon: treize années d'histoire’, in Revue française d'études politiques africaines (Paris), 06 1973, pp. 39–57;Google Scholar and M'Bokolo, Elikia, ‘French Colonial Policy in Equatorial Africa in the 1940s and 1950s’, in Prosser Gifford, and Louis, Wm Roget (eds.), The Transfer of Power in Africa: decolonization, 1940–1960 (New Haven, 1982), pp 173–210.Google Scholar

¹ See Gardinier, op. cit. for his useful discussion of the missions, education, and early political figures.

¹ Although relatively little has been written about the history of twentieth-century Gabon, the nineteenth century has received considerable attention, notably by three Gabonese scholars: Ambouroue-Avaro, Joseph, Un Peuple gabonais à l'aube de la colonisation. Le Bas Ogowe au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1981);Google ScholarM'Bokolo, Elikia, Noirs et Blancs en Afrique Equatoriale. Les Sociétés côtières et la pénétration française (Paris, 1981);Google Scholar and N'Nah, Nicolas Metegue, L'Implantation coloniale au Gabon. Résistance d'un peuple (Paris, 1981).Google Scholar See also Birmingham, David and Phyllis, M. Martin (eds.), History of Central Africa (London, 1983);Google ScholarChamberlain, Christopher, ‘Competition and Conflict: the development of the bulk export trade in Central Gabon during the nineteenth century’, Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1977;Google ScholarCoquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine, Brazza et la prise de possession du Congo: la misslon de l'ouest africain (Paris, 1969);Google ScholarGaulme, François, Le Pays de Cama, un ancien état côtier du Gabon et ses origines (Paris, 1983);Google ScholarMartin, Phyllis M., The External Trade of the Loango Coast, 1576–1870 (Oxford, 1972);Google Scholar and Patterson, K. David, The Northern Gabon Coast to 1875 (Oxford, 1975).Google Scholar

¹ Gardinier, op. cit. p. 128.

² M'Bokolo, loc. cit. p. 174.

¹ For Gabon's often harsh colonial history, see Balandier, Georges, Sociologie actuelle de l'Afrique noire (Paris, 1955);Google Scholar Weinstein, op. cit.; Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine, Le Congo an temps des grandes compagnies concessionnaires, 1898–1930 (Paris, 1972);Google Scholar and Fernandez, James W., Bwiti: an ethnography of the religious imagination in Africa (Princeton, 1982).Google Scholar

² See Weinstein, Brian, Éboué (New York, 1971), for a description of this era.Google Scholar

¹ Péan, Affaires africaines, p. 40.

² Comte, loc. cit. p. 41.

¹ M'Bokolo, loc. cit. p. 201.

² Gardinier, op. cit. p. 161.

³ Mbokolo, loc. cit. p. 203.

¹ Ibid. p. 201.

² Comte, loc. cit. p. 42.

³ See ‘Gabon: putsch or coup d'état?’, in Africa Report (New York), 03 1964, pp. 12–15;Google ScholarPubMed and Gardinier, op. cit. pp. 58–61. It is reported that several hours before the coup began the Cabinet Director, Albert-Bernard Bongo, became aware of abnormal activity among the military, but apparently not even M'Ba took his warnings seriously. Comte, loc. cit. p. 45, offers this interesting note.

¹ Gardinier, op. cit. pp.59–60.

² Comte, loc. cit. p. 46.

¹ Germain Mba spent some years in Europe working as a journalist until 1971, when Houphouët-Boigny persuaded Bongo that he should be forgiven. Mba was first made Gabonese Ambassador to West Germany, but while in Libreville prior to leaving for Tokyo to become Ambassador to Japan, he was mysteriously murdered (it is assumed, because his body was never found) on the night of 16 September 1971. Houphouët-Boigny was reported to be furious about Mba's death, which fuelled the controversy about Bongo's connections with Le Clan des gabonais. See ‘Gabon: l'assassinar de Germain Mba’, in Jeune Afrique, 560, 28 09 1971, p. 27;Google Scholar and Péan, op. cit. pp. 5–17.

² Vieyra, Justin, ‘Quand Léon Mba s'en ira’, in Jeune Afrique, 301, 16 10 1966, p. 18.Google Scholar

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¹ Joachim, Paulin, ‘Le Gabon fait peau neuve’, in Bingo, 171, 04 1967, pp. 26–7,Google Scholar and ‘Gabon: coûte que coûte’, in Jeune Afrique, 651, 30 06 1973, p. 19.Google Scholar

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³ Alima, Jos-Blaise, ‘Gabon: la route de fer’, in jeune Afrique, 644, 12 05 1973, p. 51,Google Scholar and ‘Gabon: deputés et ministres’, in Ibid. 637, 24 March 1973, p. 20.

¹ ‘M. Bongo est mécontent des forces de l'Ordre et appelle ceux qui critiquent le régime gabonais des aveugles’, in Afrique nouvetle (Dakar), 1246, 24–30 06 1971, p. 7.Google Scholar See also ‘Institution d'un parti unique au Gabon par le President Bongo’, in Ibid. 1076, 21–7 March 1968, pp. 6–7.

² Bernetel, Paul, ‘Foccart, est-ce fini?’, in Jeune Afrique, 733, 24 01 1975, p. 22;Google Scholar and ‘Gabon: Bongo seeks Bonn investment’, in Africa Diary, 12–18 March 1978, p. 8911.

³ ‘M. Bongo est mécontent’, loc. cit. p. 7; ‘Gabon: Bongo defends “Open Door” policy’, in Africa Diary, 24–30 September 1971, p. 5645; Alima, loc. cit. p. 29; and ‘Gabon; coûte que coûte’, p. 20.

¹ Péan, Pierre, ‘Gabon’, in Jeune Afrique, 693, 20 04 1974, p. 6. Péan's articles were notable for their candour.Google Scholar

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³ See ‘Gabon and Rhodesia’, in Africa Confidential, 16, 20 06 1975, p. 8;Google Scholar‘Gabon: violation of trade embargo on Rhodesia alleged’, in Africa Diary, 15, 23–9 07 1975, pp. 7523–4;Google Scholar and ‘Sanctions-Busting’, in The Economist (London), 11 03 1978, p. 64.Google Scholar

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² ‘Cameroonians Living in Gabon Evacuated’, in Africa Diary, 21, 13–19 08 1981, pp. 10619–20;Google Scholar also ‘Cameroun-Gabon: un règlement sans tambour ni trompette’, in Jeune Afrique, 809, 9 07 1976, pp. 26–7.Google Scholar

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³ Ibid. p. 76.

⁴ ‘Gabon-Nigena: il suffit de faire le premier pas’, in Jeune Afrique, 497, 14 07 1970, p. 25;Google Scholar and ‘les petits ex-Biafrais sont tous rentrés au Nigeria’, in Afrique Nouvelle, 1228, 18–24 02 1971, p. 6.Google Scholar

¹ See ‘Gabon: Benin nationals to be expelled’, in Africa Diary, 17–23 September 1978, p. 9180; ‘Les Victimes de Khartoum: Gabon-Bénin’, in Afrique nouvelle, 1518, 2–8 08 1978, p. 6;Google Scholar and Soudan, François, ‘Gabon-Bénin: la paix des ésprits’, in Jeune Afrique, 923, 13 09 1978, pp. 48–9.Google Scholar Péan, Afaires africaines, pp. 172–81, describes this aborted invasion.

² ‘Libreville, cité la plus chère du monde, lutte contre la hausse des prix au Gabon’, in Afrique nouvelle, 1191, 4–10 06 1970, p. 6.Google Scholar

³ ‘Gabon: une vague de xénophobie’, in Jeune Afrique, 734, 31 01 1975, p. 25;Google Scholar and ‘Gabon; mobilisation contre la hausse’, in Ibid. 738, 28 February 1975, p. 27.

¹ Jos-Blaise Alima, ‘Gabon: retrouver le paradis perdu’, in Ibid. 936, 13 December 1978, pp. 77–8.

² Péan, Affaires africaines, p. 21.

³ Ibid. p. 40.

¹ Ibid. pp. 35–6.

² France: SAC and Gabon', in Africa Confidential, 22, 2 09 1981, p. 8.Google ScholarPubMed

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⁴ Crozier, Brian, De Gaulle (New York, 1973), pp. 595–6.Google Scholar

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⁴ Soudan, François, ‘Les Éspions français en Afrique’, in Jeune Afrique, 1112, 28 04 1982, p. 24.Google Scholar

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² Diallo, Siradiou, ‘Gabon/France: une crise de plus?’, in Jeune Afrique, 1196, 7 12 1983, pp. 41 and 43.Google Scholar

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¹ ‘Gabon: Bongo's woes’, in Africa Confidential, 23, 28 04 1982, PP. 7–8.Google Scholar

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⁴ ‘Gabon: Bongo's security’, op. cit. p. 6; and Cornevin, Robert and Mulvey, Rosamund, ‘Gabon: recent history’, in Africa South of the Sahara, 1987 (London, 1986), p. 8.Google Scholar

⁵ ‘Gabon: amnesty granted’, in West Africa, 3618, 12 01 1987, p. 91.Google Scholar

⁶ Diallo, Siradiou, ‘Bongo parle à coeur ouvert’, in Jeune Afrique, 1353, 10 12 1986, P. 14. In fact, most chefs de village were non-hereditary leaders whose often fleeting power depended upon personal skills, charismatic oratory, and the fickle consensus of a council of elders. Such a society could be ‘democratic’ to the point of ineffectualness. Bongo's intepretation of tradition's precedents is not bound by mere facts.Google Scholar

¹ Ibid. p. 20.

² ‘Gabon: Bongo to China’, in West Africa, 3623, 16 02 1987, p. 341.Google Scholar

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² Schissel, Howard, ‘Gabon: the ups and downs of an open economy’, in West Africa, 3504, 15 10 1984, p. 2078;Google ScholarHackett, Paul, ‘Gabon: economy’, in Africa South of the Sahara, 1987 (London, 1986), p. 452;Google Scholar and Trail, Susan, ‘Boosting New Export Earners’, in West Africa, 3548, 6 08 1985, p. 1748.Google Scholar

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³ Misser, François, ‘Risk— the Game of International Investment’, in African Business (London), 11 1986, pp. 57 and 59. The ‘Nord-Sud Export Consultants’ used the following seven-point scale for risks: 7, similar to western industrial countries; 6, very low; 5, moderate; 4, rather high; 3, very high; 2, dangerous; I, prohibitive.Google Scholar

⁴ In the category of ‘financial risk’, Cameroun with 4·5 was the best bet, while Gabon, South Africa, Kenya, and Zimbabwe were next, scoring 3·5. As regards ‘Business Environment Risk’, Gabon, Côte d'Ivoire, and South Africa were the most favoured, each scoring. In the critical category, ‘Risk of Expropriation and Nationalisation’, Gabon was, once again, the ‘best’, scoring 4·6, just above Côte d'Ivoire. Misser, loc. cit. pp. 57 and 59.

⁵ Although Bongo prefers to deal with the French droite, even l'extrême-droite– the French newspaper, Le Canard enchainé revealed that Jean-Marie Le Pen had solicited electoral funds — he burns no bridges, and has long maintained close relations with the socialists. See ‘Gabon: money for taking’, in Africa Confidential, 26, 12, 1985, pp. 7–8.Google ScholarPubMed

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² For the second stage of construction, the financial involvement of the member-nations of the consortium was as follows: France, 39·5%; U.K., 22%; West Germany, 16·8%; Italy, 12·1%; Belgium and the Netherlands, 4·8% each. See Perry, Alison, ‘Gabon: coming of the railway’, in West Africa, 3621, 2 02 1987, p. 197.Google Scholar

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⁵ Schissel, Howard, ‘Gabon: the economic outlook’, in Africa Report, January–February 1985, p. 28.Google Scholar

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⁴ ‘Gabon: les étrangers de Bongo’, p. 4. It has been estimated that there were perhaps several dozen foreign prostitutes in Libreville, most of them from Cameroun and Equatorial Guinea.

¹ Kpatindé, loc. cit. p. 30.

² Jeune Afrique, 16 July 1986, p. 7.

³ Armah, Ayi Kwei, ‘Africa and the Francophone Dream’, in West Africa, 3582, 28 04 1986, p. 884.Google Scholar

¹ Ibid. pp. 884–5.