^{Page 2 note 1} Robinson, Ronald and Gallagher, John, Africa and the Victorians: the official mind of imperialism (New York, 1961), pp. 379–409.Google Scholar

^{Page 2 note 2} On the pitfalls of socialism in Africa, see Young, Crawford, Ideology and Development in Africa (New Haven, 1982).Google Scholar

^{Page 2 note 3} Harman, Nicholas, ‘East Africa: turning the corner’, in The Economist (London), 20 06 1987.Google Scholar

^{Page 3 note 1} Lofchie, Michael F., ‘Agrarian Socialism in the Third World: the Tanzanian case’, in Comparative Politics (New York), 8, 3, 03 1976, pp. 479–99;Google Scholar and Mchenry, Dean E. Jr, Tanzania's Ujamaa Villages: the implementation of a rural development strategy (Berkeley, 1979).Google Scholar

^{Page 3 note 2} Twenty out of 52 sovereign African states are so governed, based on this writer's modification of enumerations in Phillips, Claude S., The African Political Dictionary (Santa Barbara, 1984), pp. 75 and 83.Google Scholar

^{Page 3 note 3} In a major address, President José Eduardo dos Santos of the People's Republic of Angola has called for scientific balance in the teaching of economics at the national university, in conjunction with a comprehensive programme of economic restructring, to include expansion of the private enterprise sector, removal of price controls, contraction of the state sector, and affiliation with the International Monetary Fund. ‘The teaching of economics’, he declared’, ‘should be seen as a branch of science involving responsibilities similar to those demanded of physics, biology or medicine. This means that the excessive burden of political content in the study of economics must be counterbalanced with diversified and up-to-date information on the various currents of modern economics’. Journal de Angola (Luanda), 18 08 1987, translated by Gerald J. Bender.Google Scholar

^{Page 4 note 1} Otite, Onigu, ‘Introduction. The Study of Social Thought in Africa’, and ‘Issues in African Socialism’, in Otite, (ed.), Themes in African Social and Political Thought (Enugu, 1978), pp. 9–11 and 138–56.Google Scholar

^{Page 5 note 1} For an insightful comparison of Nyerere and Senghor, see Nursey-Bray, Paul, ‘Consensus and Community: the theory of African one-party democracy’ in Duncan, Graeme (ed.), Democratic Theory and Practice (Cambridge, 1983), pp. 96–111.Google Scholar

^{Page 5 note 2} Rhoda, E. Howard, Human Rights in Commonwealth Africa (Totowa, N.J., 1986), chs. 6, 7, and passim.Google Scholar

^{Page 5 note 3} On Nkrumah's intellectual evolution, see Hountondji, Paulin J., African Philosophy (Bloomington, 1983), chs. 6 and 7.Google Scholar

^{Page 5 note 4} See Chabal, Patrick, Amilcar Cabral: revolutionary leadership and people's war (Cambridge, 1983).Google Scholar

^{Page 6 note 1} Ibid. p. 177.

^{Page 6 note 2} Reproduced in Sinclair, Michael, Community Development in South Africa (Washington, D. C., 1986), appendix iii.Google Scholar

^{Page 6 note 3} Quoted in Saul, John, ‘South Africa: the question of strategy’, in New Left Review (London), 160, 11–12 1986, p. 11.Google Scholar

^{Page 7 note 1} Adam, Heribert and Moodley, Kogila, South Africa Without Apartheid: dismantling racial domination (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1986), pp. 248–63;Google Scholar Saul, loc. cit.; Karis, Thomas G., ‘South African Liberation: the communist factor’, in Foreign Affairs (New York), 65, 2, Winter 1986–1987, pp. 267–87;Google Scholar and Lodge, Tom, ‘State of Exile: the African National Congress of South Africa, 1976–1986’, in Third World Quarterly (London), 9, 1, 01 1987, pp. 1–27.Google Scholar

^{Page 7 note 2} This discussion of the Political Bureau's report to the Armed Forces Ruling Council is based on its summary and analysis in Newswatch (Lagos), 13 04 1987,Google Scholar which was contiscated by the authorities in Nigeria, who forbade the further publication of this weekly magazine for six months as punishment for the unauthorised disclosures. For a comprehensive analysis of the report, based on Newswatch, see Diamond, Larry, ‘Nigeria: pluralism, statism and the struggle for democracy’, in Diamond, , Linz, Juan, and Lipset, Seymour Martin (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries, Vol. 11, Africa (Boulder, 1988).Google Scholar For the Government's own views and analysis, see Federal Republic of Nigeria, Government's Views and Comments on the Findings and Recommendations of the Political Bureau (Lagos, 1987).Google Scholar

^{Page 8 note 1} Ibid. p. 43.

^{Page 8 note 2} Newswatch, 13 April 1987, p. 16.

^{Page 9 note 1} ‘Statement: COSATU, SACTU, and the ANC’, in Sechaba (Lusaka), 05 1986, p. 11.Google Scholar

^{Page 9 note 2} ‘Interview: Elijah Barayi’, in Africa Report (New Brunswick), 31, 2, 03–04 1986, p. 18.Google Scholar

^{Page 10 note 1} Sklar, Martin J., The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890–1916: the market, the law, and politics (Cambridge, 1988).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{Page 10 note 2} Ibid. pp. 2–3; also pp. 11–14 and 20–33.

^{Page 10 note 3} Heilbroner, Robert L., The Nature and Logic of Capitalism (New York, 1985), p. 102.Google Scholar

^{Page 11 note 1} Ibid. p. 104.

^{Page 11 note 2} The World Bank, Financing Adjustment with Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1986–90 (Washington, D.C., 1986), p. 21.Google Scholar The term ‘formal sector’ refers to economic activity that is ‘effectively subject to “formal” rules’ embodied in ‘contracts, licenses, labor inspection’, and similar legally enforceable devices. International Labour Organisation, World Labour Report (Geneva, 1984), p. 25.Google Scholar

^{Page 11 note 3} World Bank, Accelerated Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: an agenda for action (Washington, D.C., 1981), pp. 5 and 40–4;Google Scholar for the ensuing debate see, inter alia, Browne, Robert S. and Cummings, Robert J., The Lagos Plan of Action vs. The Berg Report (Lawrenceville, Va., 1984); and Ravenhill, John (ed.), Africa in Economic Crisis (New York, 1986).Google ScholarCf. Diamond, Larry, ‘Class Formation in the Swollen African State’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 25, 4, 12 1987, pp. 567–96.Google Scholar

^{Page 11 note 4} Hawkins, A. M., ‘Can Africa Industrialize?’, in Robert, J. Berg and Whitaker, Jennifer Seymour (eds.), Strategies for African Development (Berkeley, 1986), p. 299.Google Scholar

^{Page 12 note 1} The writings of Donal Cruise O'Brien on Senegal constitute a significant exception. He describes a theocratic-enterpreneurial élite (the sufi marabouts) that acts as a democratic force in so far as its ability to procure disciples depends on its use of the political process to satisfy their economic needs. ‘Wails and Whispers: the people's voice in West African Muslim politics’, in Chabal, Patrick (ed.), Political Domination in Africa: reflections on the limits of power (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 71–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{Page 12 note 2} Sklar, Richard L., ‘Developmental Democracy’, in Comparative Studies in Society and History (Cambridge), 29, 4, 10 1987, p. 700.Google Scholar

^{Page 12 note 3} Financial Times (London), 1 11 1986.Google Scholar This conference was sponsored by three governmental and three non-governmental organisations; namely, the World Bank, African Development Bank, Government of Kenya, Kenya Association of Manufacturers, Voluntary Agencies Development Assistance (Kenya), and Inter-Action (U.S.A.). Hyden, Goran, ‘Business and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa’, in UFSI Reports (Indianapolis), 25, 1986, Africa/Middle East, p. 8, n. 12.Google Scholar

^{Page 12 note 4} Ibid.

^{Page 13 note 1} Ibid. pp. 6–7. Quotations from Hyden's lucid summary.

^{Page 13 note 2} Ibid. p. 6.

^{Page 13 note 3} Young, Ideology and Development, p. 183.

^{Page 14 note 1} Africa Research Bulletin: economic, financial, and technical (Exeter), 23, 1, 28 02 1986, p. 8067.Google Scholar

^{Page 14 note 2} Ibid. 23, 22, 31 December 1986, p. 8468.

^{Page 14 note 3} For the idea of ‘developmental merits’ in relation to the choice between capitalism and socialism, see Schatz, Sayre P., ‘Postimperialism and the Great Competition’, in Becker, David G., Frieden, Jeff, Schatz, , and Sklar, Richard L., Postimperialism: international capitalism and development in the late twentieth century (Boulder and London, 1987), pp. 197–8.Google Scholar

^{Page 15 note 1} Nove, Alec, The Economics of Feasible Socialism (London, 1983), p. 177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{Page 16 note 1} Ibid. pp. 183–96 and 199.

^{Page 16 note 2} Sandbrook, Richard with Barker, Judith, The Politics of Africa's Economic Stagnation (Cambridge, 1985), p. 34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{Page 16 note 3} Schatz, Sayre P., ‘Laissez-Faireism for Africa?’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 25, 1, 03 1987, p. 138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{Page 17 note 1} World Bank, Poverty and Human Development (Oxford, 1980), pp. v and 1.Google Scholar

^{Page 17 note 2} World Bank, Toward Sustained Development in Sub-Saharan Africa (Washington, D.C., 1984), p. 9.Google Scholar

^{Page 17 note 3} Lee, Hahn Been, ‘Korean Development: lessons, problems and prospects’, David Dollar and Kenneth Sokoloff, ‘Economic Growth and Income Inequality in South Korea’, and Aiden Foster-Carter, ‘A Comparison and Assessment of the Two Koreas’, Conference on ‘The Role of the State in Economic Development: Republic of Korea’, University of California, Los Angeles, 14–16 August 1987.Google Scholar

^{Page 17 note 4} Foreign aid accounted for two-thirds of Tanzanian gross domestic investment in 1979. Howard, op. cit. p. 76.

^{Page 18 note 1} Okun, Arthur M., Equality and Efficiency: the big tradeoff (Washington, D.C., 1975), pp. 117 and 120.Google Scholar

^{Page 18 note 2} I am indebted to Jeff Frieden for this formulation. ‘Equity’ – defined here to conote social and economic justice – is a more realistic goal/value for social reformers in the Third World than Okun's ‘equality’.

^{Page 18 note 3} Sayre P. Schatz, whose thesis – ‘the character of the contemporary era depends upon the superiority of either capitalism or socialism’ for ‘development tasks’ in the Third World – has stimulated the argument of this section, does not, by any means, construe the ‘great competition’ narrowly. Yet his thesis does diverge, avowedly so, from that of David G. Becker and the present writer, who reject the proposition that competition between capitalism and socialism is a fundamental issue for development in the Third World. See Schatz, ‘Postimperialism and the Great Competition’, pp. 193 and 197, and Becker, ‘Postimperialism: a first quarterly report’, in Becker, Frieden, Schatz, and Sklar, op. cit. pp. 215–17. See also the historical investigation of this issue in another context by Martin klar, op. cit., whose encouragement of the transcendence thesis in this section is indistinguishable from its origin.

^{Page 19 note 1} Bender, Gerald J., ‘The United States and Africa’, Presidential Address to the Twenty-Ninth Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association, Madison, Wisconsin, 31 October 1986.Google Scholar

^{Page 19 note 2} Personal communication.

^{Page 19 note 3} The Wall Street Journal (New York), 2 07 1980, Jonathan Kwitny.Google Scholar

^{Page 20 note 1} Berg, Elliot, ‘The World Bank's Strategy’, in Ravenhill (ed.), op. cit. p. 57.Google Scholar

^{Page 20 note 2} Bender, ‘The United States and Africa’, and personal communication.Google Scholar

^{Page 20 note 3} For the rise of a capitalist intelligentsia in South Africa, See Bozzoli, Belinda, The Political Nature of a Ruling Class: capital and ideology in South Africa, 1890–1933 (London, 1981).Google Scholar