Hostname: page-component-7b9c58cd5d-f9bf7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-03-14T12:22:35.828Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Strategy implementation: What is the failure rate?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 January 2015

Carlos J F Cândido  and
Sérgio P Santos
Carlos J F Cândido*
Affiliation:
CEFAGE, Évora, Portugal; and Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
Sérgio P Santos
Affiliation:
CEFAGE, Évora, Portugal; and Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

It is often claimed that 50–90% of strategic initiatives fail. Although these claims have had a significant impact on management theory and practice, they are controversial. We aim to clarify why this is the case. Towards this end, an extensive review of the literature is presented, assessed, compared and discussed. We conclude that while it is widely acknowledged that the implementation of a new strategy can be a difficult task, the true rate of implementation failure remains to be determined. Most of the estimates presented in the literature are based on evidence that is outdated, fragmentary, fragile or just absent. Careful consideration is advised before using current estimates to justify changes in the theory and practice. A set of guiding principles is presented for assisting researchers to produce better estimates of the rates of failure.

Keywords

strategy implementationbusiness strategystrategic change managementfailure ratesuccess
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Management & Organization , Volume 21 , Issue 2 , March 2015 , pp. 237 - 262
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alchian, A. A. (1950). Uncertainty, evolution, and economic theory. Journal of Political Economy, 58(3), 211–221.Google Scholar
Aldrich, H. E. (1979). Organizations and environments. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Alexander, L. D. (1985). Successfully implementing strategic decisions. Long Range Planning, 18(3), 91–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amitabh, M. (2010). Research in strategy-structure-performance construct: Review of trends, paradigms and methodologies. Journal of Management and Organization, 16(5), 744–763.Google Scholar
Ansoff, H. I. (1965). Corporate strategy. New York: McGraw Hill.Google Scholar
Ansoff, H. I., Declerck, R. P., & Hayes, R. L. (1976). From strategic planning to strategic management. New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Ansoff, H. I., & McDonnell, E. (1990). Implanting strategic management. New York: Prentice Hall International.Google Scholar
Arthur D. Little (1992). Executive caravan TQM survey summary. Cambridge, MA: Arthur D. Little Corporation.Google Scholar
Baden-Fuller, C., & Stopford, J. M. (1994). Rejuvenating the mature business: The competitive challenge. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.Google Scholar
Balogun, J., & Hailey, V. H. (2008). Exploring strategic change. Harlow: Pearson.Google Scholar
Barnett, W. P., & Carroll, G. R. (1995). Modeling internal organizational change. Annual Review of Sociology, 21(1), 217–236.Google Scholar
Barney, J. B. (2001). Is the resource-based ‘view’ a useful perspective for strategic management research? Yes. Academy of Management Review, 26(1), 41–56.Google Scholar
Bauer, J., Falshaw, R., & Oakland, J. S. (2005). Implementing business excellence. Total Quality Management, 16(4), 543–553.Google Scholar
Beamish, P. W. (1985). The characteristics of joint ventures in developed and developing countries. Columbia Journal of World Business, 20(2), 13–19.Google Scholar
Becer, E., Hage, B., McKenna, M., & Wilczynski, H. (2007). Performance-improvement initiatives – Three best practices for project success. New York: Booz Allen Hamilton. Retrieved from www.boozallen.com.Google Scholar
Beer, M., & Eisenstat, R. A. (2000). The silent killers of strategy implementation and learning. Sloan Management Review, 41(4), 29–40.Google Scholar
Beer, M., & Nohria, N. (2000). Cracking the code of change. Harvard Business Review, 78(3), 133–141.Google ScholarPubMed
Bockmühl, S., König, A., Enders, A., Hungenberg, H., & Puck, J. (2011). Intensity, timeliness, and success of incumbent response to technological discontinuities: A synthesis and empirical investigation. Review of Managerial Science, 5(4), 265–289.Google Scholar
Burnes, B. (2004). Kurt Lewin and the planned approach to change: A re-appraisal. Journal of Management Studies, 41(6), 977–1002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burnes, B. (2005). Complexity theories and organizational change. International Journal of Management Reviews, 7(2), 73–90.Google Scholar
Calori, R., Baden-Fuller, C., & Hunt, B. (2000). Managing change at novotel: Back to the future. Long Range Planning, 33(6), 779–804.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cândido, C. J. F., & Morris, D. S. (2000). Charting service quality gaps. Total Quality Management, 11(4–6), 463–472.Google Scholar
Cândido, C. J. F., & Morris, D. S. (2001). The implications of service quality gaps for strategy implementation. Total Quality Management, 12(7/8), 825–833.Google Scholar
Cândido, C. J. F., & Santos, S. P. (2011). Is TQM more difficult to implement than other transformational strategies? Total Quality Management, 22(11), 1139–1164.Google Scholar
Carnall, C. A. (1986). Managing strategic change: An integrated approach. Long Range Planning, 19(6), 105–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chandler, A. D. (1962). Strategy and structure: Chapters in the history of the American industrial enterprise. Cambridge: The MIT Press.Google Scholar
Charan, R., & Colvin, G. (1999). Why CEOs fail. Fortune, 139(12), 68–78.Google Scholar
Cohen, M. D., March, J. G., & Olsen, J. P. (1972). A garbage can model of organisational choice. Administrative Science Quarterly, 17(1), 1–25.Google Scholar
Corboy, M., & Corrbui, D. (1999). The seven deadly sins of strategy implementation. Management Accounting, 77(10), 29–30Google Scholar
Cyert, R. M., & March, J. G. (1964). The behavioral theory of the firm: A behavioral science – Economics amalgam. In W. W. Cooper, H. J. Leavitt, & M. W. Shelly (Ed.), New perspectives in organizational research. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 289–384.Google Scholar
Dean, J. W., & Bowen, D. E. (1994). Management theory and total quality management: Improving research and practice through theory development. Academy of Management Review, 19(3), 392–418.Google Scholar
Dean, J. W., & Sharfman, M. P. (1993). Procedural rationality in the strategic decision-making process. Journal of Management Studies, 30(4), 587–610.Google Scholar
DeGeus, A. P. (1988). Planning as learning. Harvard Business Review, 66(2), 70–74.Google Scholar
Dion, C., Allday, D., Lafforet, C., Derain, D., & Lahiri, G. (2007). Dangerous liaisons, mergers and acquisitions: The integration game, Report by Hay Group, Philadelphia, USA, pp. 1–16. Retrieved from www.haygroup.com.Google Scholar
Dooyoung, S., Kalinowski, J. G., & El-Enein, G. A. (1998). Critical implementation issues in total quality management. Advanced Management Journal, 63(1), 10–14.Google Scholar
Dow, D., Samson, D., & Ford, S. (1999). Exploding the myth: Do all quality management practices contribute to superior quality performance? Production and Operations Management, 8(1), 1–27.Google Scholar
Doyle, M., Claydon, T., & Buchanan, D. (2000). Mixed results, lousy process: The management experience of organizational change. British Journal of Management, 11(3), S59–S80.Google Scholar
Dunphy, D. C., & Stace, D. A. (1988). Transformational and coercive strategies for planned organizational change: Beyond the O. D. model. Organization Studies, 9(3), 317–334.Google Scholar
Dyason, M. D., & Kaye, M. M. (1997). Achieving real business advantage through the simultaneous development of managers and business excellence. Total Quality Management, 8(2/3), 145–151.Google Scholar
Economist Intelligence Unit (2013). Why good strategies fail: Lessons from the C-Suite. London: Economist Intelligence Unit Limited.Google Scholar
The Economist (1992). The cracks in quality. The Economist, 18, 69–70.Google Scholar
Edmondson, A. C. (2011). Strategies for learning from failure. Harvard Business Review, 89(4), 48–55.Google ScholarPubMed
Eisenhardt, K. M., & Zbaracki, M. J. (1992). Strategic decision making. Strategic Management Journal, 13(8), 17–37.Google Scholar
Franken, A., Edwards, C., & Lambert, R. (2009). Executing strategic change: Understanding the critical management elements that lead to success. California Management Review, 51(3), 49–73.Google Scholar
Fredrickson, J. W., & Iaquinto, A. L. (1989). Inertia and creeping rationality in strategic decision processes. Academy of Management Journal, 32(3), 516–542.Google Scholar
Fredrickson, J. W., & Mitchell, T. R. (1984). Strategic decision processes: Comprehensiveness and performance in an industry with an unstable environment. Academy of Management Journal, 27(2), 399–423.Google Scholar
French, S. N. J., Kouzmin, A., & Kelly, S. J. (2011). Questioning the epistemic virtue of strategy: The emperor has no clothes. Journal of Management and Organization, 17(4), 434–447.Google Scholar
Galpin, T. J. (1997). Making strategy work – Building sustainable growth capability. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.Google Scholar
Gandolfi, F., & Hansson, M. (2010). Reduction-in-force (RIF) – New developments and a brief historical analysis of a business strategy. Journal of Management and Organization, 16(5), 727–743.Google Scholar
Gandolfi, F., & Hansson, M. (2011). Causes and consequences of downsizing: Towards an integrative framework. Journal of Management and Organization, 17(4), 498–521.Google Scholar
Gioia, D. A., & Chittipeddi, K. (1991). Sensemaking and sensegiving in strategic change initiation. Strategic Management Journal, 12(6), 433–448.Google Scholar
Golembiewski, R. T. (1990). The irony of ironies: Silence about success rates. In R. T. Golembiewski (Ed.), Ironies in organizational development. NJ, USA: Transaction Publications, 11–29.Google Scholar
Golembiewski, R. T., Proehl, C. W., & Sink, D. (1981). Success of OD applications in the public sector: Toting up the score for a decade, more or less. Public Administration Review, 41(6), 679–682.Google Scholar
Golembiewski, R. T., Proehl, C. W., & Sink, D. (1982). Estimating the success of OD applications. Training and Development Journal, 36(4), 86–95.Google Scholar
Goss, D. (2008). Enterprise ritual: A theory of entrepreneurial emotion and exchange. British Journal of Management, 19(2), 120–137.Google Scholar
Gray, D. H. (1986). Uses and misuses of strategic planning. Harvard Business Review, 64(1), 89–97.Google Scholar
Hackett Group (2004a). Balanced scorecards: Are their 15 minutes of fame over?. Miami: The Hackett Group. Retrieved from www.thehackettgroup.com.Google Scholar
Hackett Group (2004b). Most executives are unable to take balanced scorecards from concept to reality, press release, The Hackett Group, Miami, October, pp. 1–4.Google Scholar
Hafsi, T. (2001). Fundamental dynamics in complex organizational change: A longitudinal inquiry into Hydro-Québec’s management. Long Range Planning, 34(5), 557–583.Google Scholar
Hall, G., Rosenthal, J., & Wade, J. (1993). How to make reengineering really work. Harvard Business Review, 71(6), 119–131.Google Scholar
Hambrick, D. C., & Chen, M. (2008). New academic fields as admittance-seeking social movements: The case of strategic management. Academy of Management Review, 33(1), 32–54.Google Scholar
Hambrick, D. C., & Mason, P. A. (1984). Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers. Academy of Management Review, 9(2), 193–206.Google Scholar
Hannan, M. T., & Freeman, J. (1977). The population ecology of organizations. American Journal of Sociology, 82(5), 929–964.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrigan, K. R. (1988a). Strategic alliances and partner asymmetries. Management International Review, 28(4), 53–72.Google Scholar
Harrigan, K. R. (1988b). Joint ventures and competitive strategy. Strategic Management Journal, 9(2), 141–158.Google Scholar
Harrigan, K. R. (1988c). Joint ventures: A mechanism for creating strategic change. In A. M. Pettigrew (Ed.), The management of strategic change. New York: Basil Blackwell, 195–230.Google Scholar
Hart, S. L. (1992). An integrative framework for strategy-making processes. Academy of Management Review, 17(2), 327–351.Google Scholar
Hickson, D. J., Miller, S. J., & Wilson, D. C. (2003). Planned or prioritized? Two options for managing the implementation of strategic decisions? Journal of Management Studies, 40(7), 1803–1836.Google Scholar
Holder, T., & Walker, L. (1993). TQM implementation. Journal of European Industrial Training, 17(7), 18–21.Google Scholar
Hrebiniak, L. G. (2006). Obstacles to effective strategy implementation. Organizational Dynamics, 35(1), 12–31.Google Scholar
Hughes, M. (2011). Do 70 per cent of all organizational change initiatives really fail? Journal of Change Management, 11(4), 451–464.Google Scholar
Hussey, D. (1996). A framework for implementation. In D. Hussey (Ed.), The implementation challenge. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons, 1–14.Google Scholar
Jantz, C. J., & Kendall, D. A. (1991). Consumer-driven innovative product development. Prism, 1, 24–29. Retrieved from www.adlittle.com.Google Scholar
Jørgensen, H. H., Owen, L., & Neus, A. (2008). Making change work. Somers: IBM.Google Scholar
Johnson, G., & Scholes, K. (1999). Exploring corporate strategy: Text and cases. New York: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Judson, A. S. (1991). Invest in a high-yield strategic plan. The Journal of Business Strategy, 12(4), 34–39.Google Scholar
Kaplan, R. S., & Norton, D. P. (2001). The strategy-focused organization – How balanced scorecard companies thrive in the new business environment. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.Google Scholar
Kearney, A. T. (1992). Total quality: Time to take off the rose tinted spectacles. Kempston: IFS Publications.Google Scholar
Kiechel, W. (1982). Corporate strategists under fire. Fortune, 106(13), 34–39.Google Scholar
Kiechel, W. (1984). Sniping at strategic planning. Planning Review, 8–11.Google Scholar
Korukonda, A. R., Watson, J. G., & Rajkumar, T. M. (1999). Beyond teams and empowerment: A counterpoint to two common precepts in TQM. Advanced Management Journal, 64(1), 29–36.Google Scholar
Kotter, J. P. (1995). Leading change: Why transformation efforts fail. Harvard Business Review, 73(2), 59–67.Google Scholar
Krogh, G., & Vicari, S. (1993). An autopoiesis approach to experimental strategic learning. In P. Lorange, B. Chakravarthy, J. Roos, & A. Van de Ven (Eds.), Implementing strategic processes, change learning & co-operation. Cambridge: Basil Blackwell, 394–410.Google Scholar
Lawson, R., Hatch, T., & Desroches, D. (2008). Scorecard best practices: Design, implementation, and evaluation. NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Lawson, R., Stratton, W., & Hatch, T. (2006). Scorecarding goes global – Companies around the world are deriving benefits from performance management tools. Strategic Finance, 87(9), 35–41.Google Scholar
Learned, E. P., Christensen, C. R., Andrews, K. R., & Guth, W. D. (1965). Business policy – Text and cases. Illinois: Irwin.Google Scholar
Lewin, K. (1947 (1952)). Frontiers in group dynamics. In K. Lewin (Ed.), Field theory in social science – Selected theoretical papers. London: Tavistock Publications, 188–237.Google Scholar
Lewy, C. P., & Mée, A. F. (1998a). In de kaart laten kijken, de tien geboden bij BSC-implementaties, versie 1.0. Management Control and Accounting, 2, 32–37.Google Scholar
Lewy, C. P., & Mée, A. F. (1998b). Balanced scorecard – Implementing the ten commandments. London: KPMG Consulting.Google Scholar
Makino, S., Chan, C. M., Isobe, T., & Beamish, P. W. (2007). Intended and unintended termination of international joint ventures. Strategic Management Journal, 28(11), 1113–1132.Google Scholar
Mankins, M. C., & Steele, R. (2005). Turning great strategy into great performance. Harvard Business Review, 83(7/8), 65–72.Google Scholar
March, J. G. (1981). Footnotes to organizational change. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26(4), 563–577.Google Scholar
March, J. G. (1997). The technology of foolishness. In D. S. Pugh (Ed.), Organisation theory – Selected readings. London: Penguin Books, 339–352.Google Scholar
McCunn, P. (1998). The balanced scorecard: The eleventh commandment. Management Accounting, 76(11), 34–36.Google Scholar
McKinsey, (2006). Improving strategic planning: A McKinsey survey. The McKinsey Quarterly, 1–11. Retrieved from www.mckinseyquarterly.comGoogle Scholar
McKinsey, (2008). Creating organizational transformations. The McKinsey Quarterly, 1–7. Retrieved from www.mckinseyquarterly.com.Google Scholar
Mellahi, K., & Wilkinson, A. (2004). Organizational failure: A critique of recent research and a proposed integrative framework. International Journal of Management Reviews, 5/6(1), 21–41.Google Scholar
Miller, S. (1997). Implementing strategic decisions: Four key factors. Organisation Studies, 18(4), 577–602.Google Scholar
Miller, S., Wilson, D., & Hickson, D. (2004). Beyond planning strategies for successfully implementing strategic decisions. Long Range Planning, 37(3), 201–218.Google Scholar
Mintzberg, H. (1987). Crafting strategy. Harvard Business Review, 65(4), 66–75.Google Scholar
Mintzberg, H. (1994). The rise and fall of strategic planning. New York: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Mintzberg, H., Ahlstrand, B., & Lampel, J. (1998). Strategy safari – A guided tour through the wilds of strategic management. London: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Mintzberg, H., Raisinghani, D., & Théorêt, A. (1976). The structure of ‘unstructured’ decision processes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 21(2), 246–275.Google Scholar
Mintzberg, H., & Waters, J. A. (1985). Of strategies, deliberate and emergent. Strategic Management Journal, 6(3), 257–272.Google Scholar
Mockler, R. J. (1995). Strategic management: The beginning of a new era. In D. E. Hussey (Ed.), Rethinking strategic management. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1–41.Google Scholar
Mohrman, S. A., Tenkasi, R. V., Lawler, E. E. III, & Ledford, G. E. Jr. (1995). Total quality management: Practice and outcomes in the largest US firms. Employee Relations, 17(3), 26–41.Google Scholar
Morisawa, T., & Kurosaki, H. (2003). Using the balanced scorecard in reforming corporate management systems. Nomura Research Institute Papers, 71, 1–15.Google Scholar
Naranjo-Gil, D., Hartmann, F., & Maas, V. S. (2008). Top management team heterogeneity, strategic change and operational performance. British Journal of Management, 19(3), 222–234.Google Scholar
Neely, A., & Bourne, M. (2000). Why measurement initiatives fail. Measuring Business Excellence, 4(4), 3–6.Google Scholar
Nelson, R. R., & Winter, S. G. (1974). Neoclassical vs. evolutionary theories of economic growth: Critique and prospectus. The Economic Journal, 84(336), 886–905.Google Scholar
Nonaka, I. (2007). The knowledge-creating company. Harvard Business Review, 85(7/8), 162–171.Google Scholar
Nutt, P. C. (1987). Identifying and appraising how managers install strategy. Strategic Management Journal, 8(1), 1–14.Google Scholar
Nutt, P. C. (1999). Surprising but true: Half the decisions in organizations fail. Academy of Management Executive, 13(4), 75–90.Google Scholar
O’Brien, C., & Voss, C. A. (1992). In search of quality – An assessment of 42 British Organizations using the criteria of the Baldrige Award, Operations Management Paper 92/02, London: London Business School.Google Scholar
O’Shannassy, T. (2001). Lessons from the evolution of the strategy paradigm. Journal of Management and Organization, 7(1), 25–37.Google Scholar
O’Shannassy, T. (2010). Board and CEO practice in modern strategy-making: How is strategy developed, who is the boss and in what circumstances. Journal of Management and Organization, 16(2), 280–298.Google Scholar
O’Toole, J. (1995). Leading change: Overcoming the ideology of comfort and the tyranny of custom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Papadakis, V. M., Lioukas, S., & Chambers, D. (1998). Strategic decision-making process: The role of management and context. Strategic Management Journal, 19(2), 115–147.Google Scholar
Park, S. (1991). Estimating success rates of quality circle programs: Public and private experiences. Public Administration Quarterly, 15(1), 133–146.Google Scholar
Pautler, P. A. (2003). The effects of mergers and post-merger integration: a review of Business Consulting Literature, draft paper, Federal Trade Commission, Bureau of Economics, pp. 1–41. Retrieved from www.ftc.gov/be/rt/businesreviewpaper.pdf.Google Scholar
Pettigrew, A. M. (1987). Context and action in the transformation of the firm. Journal of Management Studies, 24(6), 649–670.Google Scholar
Pinto, J. K., & Prescott, J. E. (1990). Planning and tactical factors in the project implementation process. Journal of Management Studies, 27(3), 305–327.Google Scholar
Powell, T. C. (1995). Total quality management as competitive advantage: A review and empirical study. Strategic Management Journal, 16(1), 15–37.Google Scholar
Prajogo, D. I., & Brown, A. (2006). Approaches to adopting quality in SMEs and the impact on quality management practices and performance. Total Quality Management, 17(5), 555–566.Google Scholar
Project Management Institute (2014). The high cost of low performance. Newtown Square: Project Management Institute.Google Scholar
Prospectus Strategy Consultants (1996). Profiting from increased consumer sophistication – A survey of retail financial services in Ireland and Great Britain. Dublin, Ireland: Prospectus Strategy Consultants.Google Scholar
Quinn, J. B. (1989). Strategic change: ‘logical incrementalism’. Sloan Management Review, 30(4), 45–60.Google Scholar
Raps, A. (2005). Strategy implementation – An insurmountable obstacle? Handbook of Business Strategy, 141–146.Google Scholar
Rumelt, R. P., Schendel, D. E., & Teece, D. J. (1994). Fundamental issues in strategy. In R. P. Rumelt, D. E. Schendel, & D. J. Teece (Ed.), Fundamental issues in strategy – A research agenda. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 9–47.Google Scholar
Senge, P. (1990). The leader’s new work: Building learning organizations. Sloan Management Review, 32(1), 7–23.Google Scholar
Sila, I. (2007). Examining the effects of contextual factors on TQM and performance through the lens of organisational theories: An empirical study. Journal of Operations Management, 25(1), 83–109.Google Scholar
Sirkin, H. L., Keenan, P., & Jackson, A. (2005). The hard side of change management. Harvard Business Review, 83(10), 109–118.Google Scholar
Sitkin, S. B., Sutcliffe, K. M., & Schroeder, R. G. (1994). Distinguishing control from learning in total quality management: A contingency perspective. Academy of Management Review, 19(3), 537–564.Google Scholar
Smith, M. (2005). The balanced scorecard. Financial Management, 27–28.Google Scholar
Smith, S., Tranfield, D., Foster, M., & Whittle, S. (1994). Strategies for managing the TQ agenda. International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 14(1), 75–88.Google Scholar
Soltani, E., Lai, P., & Gharneh, N. S. (2005). Breaking through barriers to TQM effectiveness: Lack of commitment of upper-level management. Total Quality Management, 16(8/9), 1009–1021.Google Scholar
Stace, D. A., & Dunphy, D. C. (1996). Translating business strategies into action: Managing strategic change. In D. Hussey (Ed.), The implementation challenge. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 69–86.Google Scholar
Stanislao, J., & Stanislao, B. C. (1983). Dealing with resistance to change. Business Horizons, 26(4), 74–78.Google Scholar
Stadler, C., & Hinterhuber, H. H. (2005). Shell, Siemens and DaimlerChrysler: Leading change in companies with strong values. Long Range Planning, 38, 467–484.Google Scholar
Sterling, J. (2003). Translating strategy into effective implementation: Dispelling the myths and highlighting what works. Strategy & Leadership, 31(3), 27–34.Google Scholar
Taylor, W. A. (1997). Leadership challenges for smaller organisations: Self-perceptions of TQM implementation. Omega – The International Journal of Management Science, 25(5), 567–579.Google Scholar
Taylor, W. A., & Wright, G. H. (2003). A longitudinal study of TQM implementation: Factors influencing success and failure. Omega – The International Journal of Management Science, 31(2), 97–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van de Ven, A. H., & Poole, M. S. (1995). Explaining development and change in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 20(3), 510–540.Google Scholar
Voss, C. A. (1988). Success and failure in advanced manufacturing technology. International Journal of Technology Management, 3(3), 285–297.Google Scholar
Voss, C. A. (1992). Successful innovation and implementation of new processes. Business Strategy Review, 3(1), 29–44.Google Scholar
Waclawski, J. (2002). Large-scale organizational change and performance: An empirical examination. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 13(3), 289–305.Google Scholar
Walsh, A., Hughes, H., & Maddox, D. P. (2002). Total quality management continuous improvement: Is the philosophy a reality? Journal of European Industrial Training, 26(6), 299–307.Google Scholar
Weick, K. E., & Quinn, R. E. (1999). Organizational change and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 50(1), 361–386.Google Scholar
Wernham, R. (1985). Obstacles to strategy implementation in a nationalized industry. Journal of Management Studies, 22(6), 632–648.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, A., & Mellahi, K. (2005). Organizational failure. Long Range Planning, 38(3), 233–238.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, A., Redman, T., & Snape, E. (1994). The problems with quality management – The view of managers: Findings from an institute of management survey. Total Quality Management, 5(6), 397–406.Google Scholar
Woodley, P. M. (2006). Culture management through the balanced scorecard: A case study, unpublished PhD thesis. Defence College of Management and Technology, Cranfield University.Google Scholar
Zairi, M. (1995). Strategic planning through quality policy deployment: A benchmarking approach. In G. K. Kanji (Ed.), Total quality management: Proceedings of the first world congress. London: Chapman & Hall, 207–215.Google Scholar