Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T04:25:54.312Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Leadership paradigms and performance in small service firms

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 July 2017

Fenwick Feng Jing
Fenwick Feng Jing*
Affiliation:
Faculty of Economics and Management, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The effects of employee-perceived leadership paradigms on multiple measures of firm performance collected from managers and customers in small businesses were examined. Four leadership paradigms operating in Australian retail pharmacies were assessed against six performance measures – financial outcomes, staff and customer satisfaction, productivity, retaining staff, and manager retention. Structural equation modeling, regression, and analysis of variance were employed to test the hypotheses. Predictions that firms characterized by visionary and organic/distributed leadership would outperform those using classical and transactional leadership were supported on all measures. Furthermore, the emerging organic leadership paradigm outperformed the others on every measure.

Keywords

leadership paradigmsperformancesmall businessorganic leadership
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Management & Organization , Volume 24 , Issue 3 , May 2018 , pp. 339 - 358
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aarons, G. A., & Sawitzky, A. C. (2006). Organizational climate partially mediates the effect of culture on work attitudes and staff turnover in mental health services. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 33(3), 289–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alfes, K., Truss, C., Soane, E. C., Rees, C., & Gatenby, M. (2013). The relationship between line manager behaviour, perceived HRM practices, and individual performance: Examining the mediating role of engagement. Human Resource Management, 52(6), 839–859.Google Scholar
Anderson, C., & Brown, C. E. (2010). The functions and dysfunctions of hierarchy. Research in Organizational Behaviour, 30, 55–89.Google Scholar
Anderson, E. W., Fornell, C., & Mazvancheryl, S. K. (2004). Customer satisfaction and shareholder value. Journal of Marketing, 68(4), 172–185.Google Scholar
Antonakis, J., & Atwater, L. (2002). Leader distance: A review and a proposed theory. The Leadership Quarterly, 13, 673–704.Google Scholar
Avery, G. C. (2004). Understanding leadership: Paradigms and cases. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Avolio, B. J. (1999). Full leadership development: Building the vital forces in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Barling, J., Loughlin, C., & Kelloway, E. K. (2002). Development and test of a model linking safety-specific transformational leadership and occupational safety. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(3), 488–496.Google Scholar
Barsade, S. G. (2002). The ripple effects: Emotional contagion and its influence on group behaviour. Administrative Science Quarterly, 47, 644–675.Google Scholar
Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Bauer, T. A., Bodner, T., Erdogan, B., Truxillo, D. M., & Tucker, J. S. (2007). Newcomer adjustment during organizational socialization: A meta-analytic review of antecedents, outcomes, and methods. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 707–721.Google Scholar
Baum, J. R., Locke, E. A., & Kirkpatrick, S. A. (1998). A longitudinal study of the relation of vision and vision communication to venture growth in entrepreneurial firms. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(1), 43–54.Google Scholar
Bernhard, F., & O’Driscoll, M. P. (2011). Psychological ownership in small family-owned businesses: Leadership style and nonfamily-employees’ work attitudes and behaviours. Group and Organization Management, 36(3), 345–384.Google Scholar
Boomsma, A. (1982). The robustness of LISREL against small sample sizes in factor analysis. In K.G. Jöreskog, & H. Wold (Ed.), Systems under indirect observation: Causality-structure-prediction (pp. 147–173). Amsterdam: North-Holland.Google Scholar
Boyatzis, R. E., Rochford, K., & Taylor, S. N. (2015). The role of the positive emotional attractor in vision and shared vision: Toward effective leadership, relationships, and engagement. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 670.Google Scholar
Braun, S., Peus, C., Weisweiler, S., & Frey, D. (2013). Transformational leadership, job satisfaction, and team performance: A multilevel mediation model of trust. The Leadership Quarterly, 24(1), 270–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, S. P., & Lam, S. K. (2008). A meta-analysis of relationships linking employee satisfaction to customer responses. Journal of Retailing, 84(3), 243–255.Google Scholar
Brunetto, Y., Shacklock, K., Teo, S., & Farr-Wharton, R. (2014). The impact of management on the engagement and well-being of high emotional labor employees. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(17), 2345–2363.Google Scholar
Bycio, P., Hackett, R. D., & Allen, J. S. (1985). Further assessments of Bass’s (1985) conceptualization of transactional and transformational leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(4), 468–478.Google Scholar
Chan, S. C. H., Huang, X., Snape, E., & Lam, C. K. (2013). The Janus face of paternalistic leaders: Authoritarianism, benevolence, subordinates organization-based self-esteem, and performance. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 34(1), 108–128.Google Scholar
Chen, X.-P., Eberly, M. B., Chiang, T.-J., Farh, J.-L., & Cheng, B.-S. (2014). Affective trust in Chinese leaders: Linking paternalistic leadership to employee performance. Journal of Management, 40(3), 796–819.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chuang, A., Judge, T. A., & Liaw, Y. J. (2012). Transformational leadership and customer service: A moderated mediation model of negative affectivity and emotion regulation. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 21(1), 28–56.Google Scholar
Cogliser, C. C., & Brigham, K. H. (2004). The intersection of leadership and entrepreneurship: Mutual lessons to be learned. The Leadership Quarterly, 15(6), 771–799.Google Scholar
Cope, J., Kempster, S., & Parry, K. (2011). Exploring distributed leadership in the small business context. International Journal of Management Reviews, 13(3), 270–285.Google Scholar
Corrigan, J. (2013). Distributed leadership: Rhetoric or reality? Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 35(1), 66–71.Google Scholar
Cowden, T., Cummings, G., & Profetto-McGrath, J. (2011). Leadership practices and staff nurses intent to stay: A systematic review. Journal of Nursing Management, 19, 461–477.Google Scholar
De Cremer, D. (2006). Affective and motivational consequences of leader self-sacrifice: The moderating effect of autocratic leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 17, 79–93.Google Scholar
De Cremer, D. (2007). Emotional effects of distributive justice as a function of autocratic leader behaviour. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 37, 1385–1404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Hoogh, A. H. B., Den Hartog, D. N., Koopman, P. L., Berg, H. T., Van Den Berg, P. T., Van der Weide, J. G., & Wilderom, C. P. M. (2004). Charismatic leadership, environmental dynamism, and performance. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 13(4), 447–471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Hoogh, A. H. B., Greer, L. L., & Den Hartog, D. N. (2015). Diabolical dictators or capable commanders? An investigation of the differential effects of autocratic leadership on team performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 26, 687–701.Google Scholar
De Luque, M. S., Washburn, N. T., Waldman, D. A., & House, R. J. (2008). Unrequited profit: How stakeholder and economic values relate to subordinates’ perceptions of leadership and firm performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 53, 626–654.Google Scholar
Denis, J. L., Langley, A., & Sergi, V. (2012). Leadership in the plural. Academy of Management Annals, 6, 211–283.Google Scholar
Dong, Y., Bartol, K. M., Zhang, Z., & Li, C. (2017). Enhancing employee creativity via individual skill development and team knowledge sharing: Influences of dual-focused transformational leadership. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 38, 439–458.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drath, W. (2001). The deep blue sea: Rethinking the source of leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Drescher, M. A., Korsgaard, M. A., Welpe, I. M., Picot, A., & Wigand, R. T. (2014). The dynamics of shared leadership: Building trust and enhancing performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(5), 771–783.Google Scholar
Edmondson, A. C. (2003). Managing the risk of learning: Psychological safety in work teams. In M. West, D. Tjosvold, & K. Smith (Ed.), International handbook of organizational teamwork and cooperative working (pp. 255–275). London: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Eesley, D. T., & Meglich, P. A. (2013). Empirical evidence of abusive supervision in entrepreneurial and small firms. Journal of Ethics and Entrepreneurship, 3(1), 39–59.Google Scholar
Eisenbeiss, S. A., van Knippenberg, D., & Boerner, S. (2008). Transformational leadership and team innovation: Integrating team climate principles. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 1438–1446.Google Scholar
El-Nahas, T., Abd-El-Salam, E. M., & Shawky, A. Y. (2013). The impact of leadership behaviour and organizational culture on job satisfaction and its relationship among organizational commitment and turnover intentions: A case study on an Egyptian company. Journal of Business and Retail Management Research, 7(2), 13–43.Google Scholar
Emery, C. R., & Barker, K. J. (2007). The effect of transactional and transformational leadership styles on the organizational commitment and job satisfaction of customer contact personnel. Journal of Organizational Culture, Communications and Conflict , 11(1), 77–90.Google Scholar
Engelen, A., Flatten, T. C., Thalmann, J., & Brettel, M. (2013). The effect of organizational culture on entrepreneurial orientation: A comparison between Germany and Thailand. Journal of Small Business Management, 52(4), 732–752.Google Scholar
Engelen, A., Gupta, V., Strenger, L., & Brettel, M. (2015). Entrepreneurial orientation, firm performance, and the moderating role of transformational leadership behaviours. Journal of Management, 41(4), 1069–1097.Google Scholar
Ensley, M. D., Hmieleski, K. M., & Pearce, C. L. (2006). The importance of vertical and shared leadership withinnew venture top management teams: Implications for the performance of start-ups. The Leadership Quarterly, 17, 217–231.Google Scholar
Evanschitzky, H., Groening, C., Mittal, V., & Wünderlich, M. (2011). How employer and employee satisfaction affect customer satisfaction: An application to franchise services. Journal of Service Research, 14(2), 136–148.Google Scholar
Evanschitzky, H., Iyer, G. R., & Caemmerer, B. (2008). Dimensions of satisfaction in retail settings: A research note. Journal of Relationship Marketing, 7(3), 275–285.Google Scholar
Evanschitzky, H., Sharma, A., & Prykop, C. (2012). The role of the sales employee in securing customer satisfaction. European Journal of Marketing, 46(3/4), 489–508.Google Scholar
Evaschitzky, H., Wangenheim, F. V., & Wünderlich, N. V. (2012). Perils of managing the service profit chain: The role of time lags and feedback loops. Journal of Retailing, 88(3), 356–366.Google Scholar
Gerbing, D. W., & Anderson, J. C. (1988). An updated paradigm for scale development incorporating unidimensionality and its assessment. Journal of Marketing Research, 25, 186–192.Google Scholar
Gounaris, S., & Boukis, A. (2013). The role of employee job satisfaction in strengthening customer repurchase intentions. Journal of Services Marketing, 7(4), 322–333.Google Scholar
Gray, C., & Mabey, C. (2005). Management development: Key differences between small and large businesses in Europe. International Small Business Journal, 23(5), 467–485.Google Scholar
Gregersen, S., Kuhnert, S., Zimber, A., & Nienhaus, A. (2011). Führungsverhalten und Gesundheit – Zum Stand der Forschung [Leadership behaviour and health – current research state]. Gesundheitswesen, 73(1), 3–12.Google Scholar
Gupta, V., MacMillan, I. C., & Surie, G. (2004). Entrepreneurial leadership: Developing and measuring a cross-cultural construct. Journal of Business Venturing, 19, 241–260.Google Scholar
Hackl, P., Scharitzer, D., & Zuba, R. (2000). Customer satisfaction in the Austrian food retail market. Total Quality Management, 11(7), 999–1006.Google Scholar
Hancock, J. I., Allen, D. G., Bosco, F. A., McDaniel, K. R., & Pierce, C. A. (2013). Meta-analytic review of employee turnover as a predictor of firm performance. Journal of Management, 39(3), 573–603.Google Scholar
Harrison, D. A., & Klein, K. J. (2007). What’s the difference? Diversity constructs as separation, variety, or disparity in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 32, 1199–1228.Google Scholar
Hofmann, D. A., & Jones, L. M. (2005). Leadership, collective personality, and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(3), 509–522.Google Scholar
Holmes-Smith, P., Coote, L., & Cunningham, E. (2006). Structural equation modeling: From the fundamentals to advanced topics. Melbourne: SREAMS.Google Scholar
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55.Google Scholar
Idris, F., & Ali, K. A. M. (2008). The impacts of leadership style and best practices on company performances: Empirical evidence from business firms in Malaysia. Total Quality Management and Business Excellence, 19(1/2), 165–173.Google Scholar
Iyer, S., & Doucette, W. R. (2003). The influence of environmental attributes on the relationship between entrepreneurial orientation and performance in independent community pharmacies. Journal of Pharmaceutical Marketing and Management, 15(2), 25–46.Google Scholar
Jacobsen, C. B., & Bøgh Andersen, L. (2015). Is leadership in the eye of the beholder? A study of intended and perceived leadership practices and organizational performance. Public Administration Review, 75, 829–841.Google Scholar
Jansen, J. J. P., Vera, D., & Crossan, M. (2009). Strategic leadership for exploration and exploitation: The moderating role of environmental dynamism. Leadership Quarterly, 20, 5–18.Google Scholar
Jing, F. F., Avery, G. C., & Bergsteiner, H. (2011). Organizational climate and performance in retail pharmacies. Leadership and Organizational Development Journal, 32(3), 224–242.Google Scholar
Jing, F. F., Avery, G. C., & Bergsteiner, H. (2014a). Enhancing performance in small professional firms through vision communication and sharing. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 31(2), 599–620.Google Scholar
Jing, F. F., Avery, G. C., & Bergsteiner, H. (2014b). Enhancing multiple dimensions of performance in small professional firms through leader-follower trust. Asia-Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 52, 351–369.Google Scholar
Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (1993). LISREL 8: Structural equation modelling with the SIMPLIS command language. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.Google Scholar
Judge, T. A., Bono, J. E., Ilies, R., & Gerhardt, M. W. (2002). Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 765–780.Google Scholar
Judge, T. A., Thoresen, C. J., Bono, J. E., & Patton, G. K. (2001). The job satisfaction–job performance relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin, 127(3), 376–407.Google Scholar
Judge, T. A., & Piccolo, R. F. (2004). Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(5), 755–768.Google Scholar
Kang, J. H., Solomon, G. T., & Choi, D. Y. (2015). CEOs’ leadership styles and managers’ innovative behaviour: Investigation of intervening effects in an entrepreneurial context. Journal of Management Studies, 52(4), 531–554.Google Scholar
Kantabutra, S., & Avery, G. C. (2006). Follower effects in the visionary leadership process. Journal of International Business and Economics Research, 4(5), 57–66.Google Scholar
Kantabutra, S., & Avery, G. C. (2009). Shared vision in customer and staff satisfaction: Relationships and their consequences. Journal of Applied Business Research, 25(4), 9–21.Google Scholar
Keller, R. T. (2006). Transformational leadership, initiating structure, and substitutes for leadership: A longitudinal study of research and development project team performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(1), 202–210.Google Scholar
Kim, T., Liu, Z., & Diefendorff, J. M. (2015). Leader–member exchange and job performance: The effects of taking charge and organizational tenure. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 36, 216–231.Google Scholar
Kline, R. B. (1998). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kumar, M., & Singh, S. (2012). Roles of perceived exchange quality and organizational identification in predicting turnover intention. IIMB Management Review , 24(1), 5–15.Google Scholar
Lehmann-Willenbrock, N. K., Meinecke, A. L., Rowold, J., & Kauffeld, S. (2015). How transformational leadership works during team interactions: A behavioural process analysis. The Leadership Quarterly, 26, 1017–1033.Google Scholar
Lim, B., & Ployhart, R. E. (2004). Transformational leadership: Relations to the five-factor model and team performance in typical and maximum contexts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(4), 610–621.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ling, Y., Simsek, Z., Lubatkin, M. H., & Veiga, J. F. (2008). The impact of transformational CEOs on the performance of small- to medium-sized firms: Does organizational context matter? Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(4), 923–934.Google Scholar
Lowe, K. B., Kroeck, K. G., & Sivasubramaniam, N. (1996). Effectiveness correlates of transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic review of the literature. Leadership Quarterly, 7, 385–425.Google Scholar
Malhotra, N., Hall, J., Shaw, M., & Oppenheim, P. (2002). Marketing research: An applied orientation. 2nd ed, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Matzler, K., Schwarz, E., Deutinger, N., & Harms, R. (2008). The relationship between transformational leadership, product innovation and performance in SMEs. Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship, 21(2), 139–151.Google Scholar
Mehra, A., Smith, B. R., Dixon, A. L., & Robertson, B. (2006). Distributed leadership in teams: The networks of leadership perceptions and team performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(3), 232–245.Google Scholar
Mesmer-Magnus, J. R., & DeChurch, L. A. (2009). Information sharing and team performance: Meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(2), 535–546.Google Scholar
Miles, R. H., & Petty, M. M. (1977). Leader effectiveness in small bureaucracies. Academy of Management Journal, 20(2), 238–250.Google Scholar
Montano, D., Reeske, A., Franke, F., & Hüffmeier, J. (2017). Leadership, followers’ mental health and job performance in organizations: A comprehensive meta-analysis from an occupational health perspective. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 38, 327–350.Google Scholar
Neubert, M. J. (1999). Too much of a good thing or the more the merrier? Exploring the dispersion and gender composition of informal leadership in manufacturing teams. Small Group Research, 30(5), 635–646.Google Scholar
Ng, T. W. H. (2017). Transformational leadership and performance outcomes: Analyses of multiple mediation pathways. The Leadership Quarterly, 28(3), 385–417. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.11.008.Google Scholar
Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2010). Organizational tenure and job performance. Journal of Management, 36(5), 1220–1250.Google Scholar
Nicolaides, V. C., LaPort, K. A., Chen, T. R., Tomassetti, A. J., Weis, E. J., Zaccaro, S. J., & Cortina, J. M. (2014). The shared leadership of teams: A meta-analysis of proximal, distal, and moderating relationships. The Leadership Quarterly, 25(5), 923–942.Google Scholar
O’Gorman, C., & Doran, R. (1999). Mission statements in small and medium-sized businesses. Journal of Small Business Management, 37(4), 59–66.Google Scholar
Park, T.-Y., & Shaw, J. D. (2013). Turnover rates and organizational performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(2), 268–309.Google Scholar
Pearce, C. L., Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P. Jr. (2009). Where do we go from here? Is shared leadership the key to team success? Organizational Dynamics, 38(3), 234–238.Google Scholar
Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P. Jr. (2002). Vertical versus shared leadership as predictors of the effectiveness of change management teams: An examination of aversive, directive, transactional, transformational and empowering leader behaviours. Group Dynamics , 6(2), 172–197.Google Scholar
Perera, S., & Baker, P. (2007). Performance measurement practices in small and medium size manufacturing enterprises in Australia. Small Enterprise Research, 15(2), 10–30.Google Scholar
Perry, M. L., Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P. Jr. (1999). Empowered selling teams: How shared leadership can contribute to selling team outcomes. Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 19(3), 35–52.Google Scholar
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioural research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903.Google Scholar
Raelin, J. (2003). Creating leaderful organizations: How to bring out leadership in everyone. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.Google Scholar
Reijonen, H., & Komppula, R. (2007). Perception of success and its effect on small firm performance. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 14(4), 689–701.Google Scholar
Renko, M., Tarabishy, A. E., Carsrud, A. L., & Brännback, M. (2014). Understanding and measuring entrepreneurial leadership style. Journal of Small Business Management, 53(1), 54–74.Google Scholar
Schaubroeck, J., Lam, S. S. K., & Peng, A. C. (2011). Cognition-based and affect-based trust as mediators of leader behaviour influences on team performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 863–871.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, B., & Bowen, D. (1985). New services design, development, and implementation and the employee. In W. R. George, & C. Marshall (Ed.), New services (pp. 82). Chicago: American Marketing Association.Google Scholar
Schuh, S., Zhang, X., & Tian, P. (2013). For the good or the bad? Interactive effects of transformational leadership with moral and authoritarian leadership behaviours. Journal of Business Ethics, 116(3), 629–640.Google Scholar
Sian, S., & Roberts, C. (2009). UK small owner-managed businesses: Accounting and financial reporting needs. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 16(2), 289–305.Google Scholar
Simsek, Z. (2007). CEO tenure and organizational performance: An intervening model. Strategic Management Journal, 28, 653–662.Google Scholar
Slavitt, D., Stamps, P., Piedmont, E., & Hasse, A. (1986). Index of work satisfaction . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Solansky, S. T. (2008). Leadership style and team processes in self-managed teams. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 14(4), 332–341.Google Scholar
Steffens, N. K., Shemla, M., Wegge, J., & Diestel, S. (2014). Organizational tenure and employee performance: A multilevel analysis. Group and Organization Management, 39(6), 664–690.Google Scholar
Tarabishy, A., Solomon, G., Fernald, L. W., & Sashkin, M. (2005). The entrepreneurial leader’s impact on the organization’s performance in dynamic markets. Journal of Private Equity, 8, 20–29.Google Scholar
Tse, H., Huang, X., & Lam, W. (2013). Why does transformational leadership matter for employee turnover? A multi-foci social exchange perspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 24, 763–776.Google Scholar
Vaccaro, I. G., Jansen, J. P., Van den Bosch, F. A. J., & Volberda, H. W. (2012). Management innovation and leadership: The moderating role of organizational size. Journal of Management Studies, 49(1), 28–51.Google Scholar
Valdiserri, G. A., & Wilson, J. L. (2010). The study of leadership in small business organizations: Impact on profitability and organizational success. Entrepreneurial Executive, 15, 47–71.Google Scholar
Van Vugt, M., Jepson, S. F., Hart, C. M., & De Cremer, D. (2004). Autocratic leadership in social dilemmas: A threat to group stability. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 1–13.Google Scholar
Waldman, D. A., & Yammarino, F. J. (1999). CEO charismatic leadership: Level-of-management and levels-of-analysis effects. Academy of Management Review, 24, 266–285.Google Scholar
Walker, E., & Brown, A. (2004). What success factors are important to small business owners? International Small Business Journal, 22(6), 577–594.Google Scholar
Wang, D., Waldman, D. A., & Zhang, Z. (2014). A meta-analysis of shared leadership and team effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(2), 181–198.Google Scholar
Wang, G., Oh, I.-S., Courtright, S. H., & Colbert, A. E. (2011). Transformational leadership and performance across criteria and levels: A meta-analytic review of 25 years of research. Group and Organization Management, 36(2), 223–270.Google Scholar
Whiting, R. J. (1964). Historical search in human relations. Academy of Management Journal, 7(1), 45–53.Google Scholar
Wiesner, R., & Innes, P. (2010). Bleak house or bright prospect? HRM in Australian SMEs over 1998–2008. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 48, 151–184.Google Scholar
Wright, P. M., Gardner, T. M., Moynihan, L. M., & Allen, M. R. (2005). The relationship between HR practices and firm performance: Examining causal order. Personnel Psychology, 58, 409–446.Google Scholar
Zhang, T., Avery, G. C., Bergsteiner, H., & More, E. (2014). The relationship between leadership paradigms and employee engagement. Journal of Global Responsibility, 5(1), 4–21.Google Scholar