Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T04:24:31.633Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

General concepts of goals and goal-setting in healthcare: A narrative review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 April 2018

Osahon Ogbeiwi
Osahon Ogbeiwi*
Affiliation:
Faculty of Health Studies, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Goal-setting is fundamental to organisational management, yet not every manager knows how to do it well. A narrative literature review was done to explore current knowledge of definitions and classifications of goals, and principles of goal-setting in the healthcare sector. Online databases generated 65 relevant articles. Additional literature sources were snowballed from referenced articles, and textbooks. Most academic authors define ‘goal’ synonymously as ‘aim’ or ‘objective’, but there is evidence of hermeneutical confusion in general literature. Goal classifications are diverse, differing according to their contextual, structural, functional, and temporal characteristics. Many authors agree that goal-setting is problem-based, change-oriented, and can effectively motivate attainment if the goal statement is formulated with a specific and challenging or SMART framework. However, recent authors report varying definitions for SMART, and evidence of past studies that empirically examined the nature and efficacy of frameworks currently used for formulating goal statements for health programmes are lacking.

Keywords

GoalsObjectivesDefinitionsClassificationsGoal-setting theorySMART FrameworkWriting Goals
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Management & Organization , Volume 27 , Issue 2 , March 2021 , pp. 324 - 341
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management 2018

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Balkin, R. S. (2013). Validation of the goal attainment scale of stabilization. Measurement and Evaluation in Counselling and Development, 46(4), 261–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barbic, S., MacEwan, W. G., Leon, A., Chau, S., Salehmohammed, Q., Kim, B., Khemda, B., Mernoushed, V., Khoshpouri, P., Osati, F., & Barbic, D. (2017). What sre the short-term goals of patients presenting the emergency department with an acute mental health compliant? Canadian Journal of Emergency Medicine, 19(S1), S82 https://doi.org/10.1017/cem.2017.215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baron, A., & Armstrong, M. (2004). Get in line. People Management, 10(20), 44–46.Google Scholar
Beardshaw, J., & Palfreman, D. (1990). The organisation in its environment (4th ed.). London: Pitman Publishing.Google Scholar
Bipp, T., & Kleingeld, A. (2011). Goal setting in practice: The effects of personality and perceptions of the goal setting process on job satisfaction and goal commitment. Personal Review, 40(3), 306–323. https://doi.org/10.1108/00483481111118630.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bornman, J., & Murphy, J. (2006). Using the ICF in goal setting: Clinical application using talking mats. Disability and Rehabilitation: Assuistive Technology, 1(3), 145–154.Google ScholarPubMed
Bovend’Eerdt, T. J. H., Botell, R. E., & Wade, D. T. (2009). Writing SMART rehabilitation goals and achiving goal attainment scaling: A practical guide. Clinical Rehabilitation, 23, 352–361.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyce, B. A., Johnston, T., Wayda, V. K., Bunker, L. K., & Eliot, J. (2001). The effects of three types of goal setting conditions on tennis performance: A field-based study. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 20(2), 188–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradley, E. H. (1999). Goal setting in clinical medicine. Social Science and Medicine, 49(2), 267–278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brady, J., Busse, R. T., & Lopez, C. J. (2014). Monitoring school consultation intervention outcomes for data-based decision making: An application of the goal attainment scaling method. Counselling Outcome Reserch and Evaluation, 5(1), 64–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/2150137814527605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bratton, J., Callinan, M., Forshaw, C., & Sawchuk, P. (2007). Work and organizational behaviour. Hounsmill, Basingstroke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Brown, S. P., Jones, E., & Leigh, T. W. (2005). The attenuation effect of role overload on relationship linking self-efficacy and goal level to work performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 972–979.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Busse, R., & Wismar, M. (2002a). Health target programmes and health care services: Any link? A conceptual and comparative study (Part 1). Health Policy, 59(3), 209–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Busse, R., & Wismar, M. (2002b). Outcome-related health targets: Political strategies for better health outcomes – A conceptual and comparative study (Part 2). Health Policy, 59(3), 222–241.Google Scholar
Campion, M. A., & Lord, R. G. (1982). A control systems conceptualization of the goal setting and changing process. Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, 30(2), 265–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2009). Writing SMART objectives. Evaluation Briefs, 3b, 1–2. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/evaluation/pdf/brief3b.pdf Google Scholar
CDC Division for Heart Disease and Stroke Prevention (DHDSP). (2017). Evaluation guide – Writing SMART objectives. Altlanta, GA: Department of Health and Human Services, CDC. Retrieved January 28, 2017, from https://www.cdc.gov/dhdsp/programs/spha/evaluation_guides/docs/smart_objectives.pdf Google Scholar
Clarke, S. P., Crowe, L. G., & Deane, F. P. (2009). Do Goal setting interventions improve the quality of goals in mental health services? Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 32(4), 292–299.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins English Dictionary. (2006). Collins English Dictionary . Glasgow, UK: HarperCollins Publications.Google Scholar
Cronin, P., Ryan, F., & Coughlan, M. (2008). Undertaking a literature review: A step-by-step approach. British Journal of Nursing, 17(1), 38–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dahlsten, F., Styhre, A., & Williander, M. (2005). The unintended consequences of management by objectives: The volume growth target of Volvo cars. Leadership & Organisational Development Journal, 26(7), 529–541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Day, T., & Tosey, P. (2011). Beyond SMART? A new framework for goal setting. The Curriculum Journal, 22(4), 515–534. https://doi.org/1080/09585176.2011.627213 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doran, G. T. (1981). There’s a S.M.A.R.T. way to write management’s goals and objectives. Management Review, 70(11), 35–36.Google Scholar
Drucker, P. F. (1955). The practice of management. London: Butterworth-Heinemann.Google Scholar
Erez, M., & Earley, P. C. (1987). Comparative analysis of goal-setting across cultures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(4), 658–665.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitsimmons, G. (2008). Time management part 1: Goal setting as a planning tool. The Bottom Line, 21(2), 61–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fulop, N., & Hunter, D. J. (2000). The experience of setting health targets in England. European Journal of Public Health, 10(4 suppl.), 20–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ginsburg, L. S. (2001). Total quality management in health care: A goal setting approach. In L. H. Friedman, & G. T. Savage (Eds.), Advances in health care management (pp. 265–290). Columbia, MO: Emerald Group Publishing Ltd.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenbank, P. (2001). Objective setting in the micro-business. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research, 7(3), 108–127. https://doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000005531 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, J., & White, V. (2013). Oxford dictionary of social work & social care. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hersh, D., Worrall, L., Howe, T., Sherratt, S., & Davidson, B. (2012). SMARTER goal setting in aphasis rehabilitation. Aphasiology, 26(2), 220–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Institute of Personnel Management. (1992). Performance management in the UK: An analysis of the issues. London: IPM.Google Scholar
Jansen, K., & Paine, J. W. (2017). Directing energy in pursuit of change goals: An empirical examination of change engagement. ACAD MANAGE PROC (Meeting Abstract Supplement) 17230. https://doi.org/105465/AMBPP.2017.17230 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jung, L. A. (2007). Writing SMART objectives and strategies that fit the routines. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(4), 54–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, R., & Norton, D. (1996). The balanced scorecard: Translating strategy into action. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press.Google Scholar
Kerr, S., & LePelley, D. (2013). Stretch goals: Risks, possibilities and best practices. In E. A Locke, & G. P. Latham (Eds.), New developments in goal setting and task performance, New developments in goal setting and task performance (pp. 21–31). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Kramer, W. S., Thayer, A. L., & Salas, E. (2013). Goal setting in Teams. In E. A Locke, & G. P. Latham (Eds.), New developments in goal setting and task performance (pp. 288–309). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Langford, A. T., Sawyer, D. R., Giomo, S., Brownson, C. A., & Toole, M. L. (2007). Patient-centered goal setting as a tool to improve diabetes self-management. The Diabetes Educator, 33(6), 139S–144S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Latham, G. P., & Locke, E. A. (2007). New developments in and directions for goal-setting research. European Psychologist, 12(4), 290–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, J. (2015). Helping your patients set achievable goals. AADE in Practice, 3(5), 42–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, K. P. W. (2010). Planning for success: Setting SMART goals for study. British Journal of Midwifery, 18(11), 744–746.Google Scholar
Lee, T. W., Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1989). Goal-setting theory and job performance. In L. A., Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Lindberg, E., & Wilson, T. L. (2011). Management by objectives: The Swedish experience in upper secondary schools. Journal of Educational Administration, 49(1), 62–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Locke, E. A. (1968). Toward a theory of task motivation and incentives. Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, 3, 157–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Locke, E. A, & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705–717. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.57.9.705.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Locke, E. A, & Latham, G. P. (2006). New directions in goal setting theory. Current Directions in Psychological Sciences, 15(5), 265–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2013). Goal setting theory. In E. A. Locke, & G. P. Latham (Eds.), New developments in goal setting and task performance (pp. 3–15). New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Locke, E. A., Shaw, K. N., Saari, L. M., & Latham, G. P. (1981). Goal-setting and task performance: 1969–1980. Psychological Bulletin, 90(1), 125–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mace, C. A. (1935). Incentives: Some experimental studies (Report no. 72). London: Industrial Health Research Board.Google Scholar
MacLeod, L. (2012). Making SMART goals smarter. Physician Executive, 38(2), 68–72.Google ScholarPubMed
Matsui, T., Okada, A., & Inoshita, O. (1983). Mechanism of feedback affecting task performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 31, 114–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Medlin, B., & Green, K. W. Jr (2009). Enhancing performance through goal setting, engagement and optimism. Industrial Management and Data Systems, 109(7), 943–956. https://doi.org/10.1108/0263557091098292 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, H. L., Carlyle, K. E., & Lafata, J. E. (2016). Adding the patient’s voice to our understanding of collaborative goal setting: How do patients with diabetes define collaborative goal setting. Chronic Illness, 12(4), 261–271. https://doi.org/10.1177/1742395316648748 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mullins, L. J. (1999). Management and organisational behaviour (5th ed.). London: Financial Times, Prentice.Google Scholar
Murphy, J., & Boa, S. (2012). Using the WHO-ICF with talking mats to enable adults with long-term communication difficulties to participate in goal setting. Augmentation and Alternative Communication, 28(1), 52–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nanji, K. C., Ferris, T. G., Torchiana, D. F., & Meyer, G. S. (2013). Overarching goals: a strategy for improving healthcare quality and safety? BMJ Quality and Safety, 22, 187–193. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjqs-2012-001082.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ogbeiwi, O. (2016). Defining goal terms in development and health. British Journal of HealthCare Management, 22(11), 544–550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ogbeiwi, O. (2017). Why written objectives need to be really SMART. British Journal of HealthCare Management, 23(7), 324–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oracle (2012). Goal setting: A fresh perspective. An Oracle white paper. USA: ORACLE Taleo Cloud Service.Google Scholar
Ordonez, L. D., Schweitzer, M. E., Galinsky, A. D., & Bazerman, M. H. (2009). Goals gone wild: The systematic side effects of over-prescribing goal setting. Working Paper. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School.Google Scholar
Organisation for Economic, Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2002). Glossary of key terms in evaluation and results based management. OECD.Google Scholar
Parker, V. (2003). Transforming patient care using a clinical governance programme. Professional Nurse, 19(1), 24–27.Google ScholarPubMed
Platt, G. (2002). SMART objectives: What they mean and how to set them. Training Journal, ProQuest Business Collection, 8 (August), 23–26.Google Scholar
Pritchard, R. D., Harrell, M. M., DiazGranados, D., & Guzman, M. J. (2008). The productivity measurement and enhancement system: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(3), 540–567.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ryan, T. A. (1970). Intentional Behaviour. New York: Ronald Press.Google Scholar
Saari, L. M. (2013). Goal setting and organizational transformation. In E. A Locke, & G. P. Latham (Eds.), New developments in goal setting and task performance. New developments in goal setting and task performance (pp. 262–269). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Save the Children. (2003). Toolkits: A practical guide to planning monitoring evaluation and impact assessment. London: Save the Children. Retrieved from http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/sites/default/files/images/Toolkits_A_practical_guide_to_planning_monitoring_evaluation_and_impact_assessment2003.pdf Google Scholar
Scobbie, L., McLean, D., Dixon, D., Duncan, E., & Wyke, S. (2013). Implementing a framework for goal setting in community-based stroke rehabilitation: A process evaluation. BMC Health Services Research, 13, 190. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-13-190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seijts, G. H., & Latham, G. P. (2000). The effects of goal setting and group size on performance in a social dilemma. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 32, 104–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shiell, A. (1997). Health outcomes are about choices and values: An economic perspective on the health outcomes movement. Health Policy, 39(1), 5–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sitzmann, T., & Bell, B. S. (2015). Dynmic effects of subconscious goals on resource allocation, performance and goal abandonment. ACAD MANAGE PROC (Meeting Abstract Supplement) 10202. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMBPP.2015.10202abstract CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stretcher, V. J., Seijts, G. H., Kok, G. J., Latham, G. P., Glasgow, R., DeVellis, B., Meertens, R. M., & Bulger, D. W. (1995). Goal-setting as a strategy for health behaviour change. Health Education Quarterly, 22(2), 190–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Herten, M. L., & Gunning-Schapers, L. J. (2000a). Targets as tools in health policy. Part 1: Lessons learnt. Health Policy., 53(1), 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Herten, M. L., & Gunning-Schapers, L. J. (2000b). Targets as tools in health policy. Part II: Guidelines for application. Health Policy, 53(1), 13–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welsh, D., Miller, J., & Cho, K. (2016). The ethical consequences of goal commitment and moral disengagement in the pursuit of high goals. ACAD MANAGE PROC (Meeting Abstract Supplement) 14127. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMBPP.2016.14127abstract CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitehead, M. (1998). Setting targets to address inequalities in health. Lancet, 351(911), 1279–1282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, R., Mento, A., & Locke, E. (1987). Task complexity as moderator of goal effects. Journal of Applied Psychology, 17, 416–425.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, M. M., Gary, M. S., & Yetton, P. W. (2015). Stretch goals: Managerial responses and performance feedback. ACAD MANAGE PROC (Meeting Abstract Supplement) 18197. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMBPP2015.18197abstract CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yearta, S. K., Maitlis, S., & Briner, R. B. (1995). An exploratory study of goals setting in theory and practice: A motivational technique that works? Journal of Occupation and Organisational Psychology, 68, 237–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Y., & Chiu, C. (2012). Goal commitment and alignment of personal goals predict group identification only when the goals are shared. Journal of Management, 15(3), 425–437.Google Scholar
Zhu, G., Gelders, L., & Pintelon, L. (2002). Object/Objective-/Oriented maintenance management. Journal of Quality in Maintenance Engineering, 8(4), 306–318. https://doi.org/10.1108/1355251021048513 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Goal setting: A key proactive source of academic self-regulation. In D. H. Schunk, & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Motivation and Self-Regulated Learning (pp. 267–295). New York: Lawrence Eribaum Associates.Google Scholar