Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T02:19:16.147Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Frequency effects in Subject Islands

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 July 2018

RUI P. CHAVES*
Affiliation:
Linguistics Department, SUNY Buffalo
JERUEN E. DERY*
Affiliation:
Zentrum für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft
*
Author’s address: 609 Baldy Hall, Linguistics Department, SUNY, Buffalo, NY 14260-1030, USA[email protected]
Author’s address: Zentrum für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft, Schützenstraße 18, 10117 Berlin, Germany[email protected]

Abstract

This work provides evidence that Subject Island violation effects vanish if subject-embedded gaps are made as frequent and pragmatically felicitous as non-island counterpart controls. We argue that Subject Island effects are caused by the fact that subject-embedded gaps are pragmatically unusual – as the informational focus does not usually correspond to a dependant of the subject phrase – and therefore are highly contrary to comprehenders’ expectations about the distribution of filler–gap dependencies (Chaves 2013, Hofmeister, Casasanto & Sag 2013). This not only explains why sentences with subject-embedded gaps often become more acceptable ‘parasitically’, in the presence of a second gap outside the island, but also explains why some Subject Island violations fail to exhibit any amelioration with repetition (Sprouse 2009, Crawford 2011, Goodall 2011); some ameliorate marginally (Snyder 2000, 2017) or moderately (Hiramatsu 2000, Clausen 2011, Chaves & Dery 2014), and others become fully acceptable, as in our case. This conclusion extends to self-paced reading Subject Island studies (Stowe 1986, Kurtzman & Crawford 1991, Pickering, Barton & Shillcock 1994, Phillips 2006), which sometimes find evidence of gap filling and sometimes do not.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

We thank audiences at the Laboratoire de Linguistique Formelle, Université Paris Diderot, the Department of Linguistics at the University of Rochester, and the 21st International Conference on Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar for feedback about some of the preliminary results reported in this work. We would also like to acknowledge useful discussions with Colin Phillips, Gail Mauner, Gregory Ward, Jean-Pierre Koenig, Maryellen MacDonald, Monica Do, Philip Hofmeister, Robert Levine, and Thomas Wasow. The usual exculpations apply. Finally, we thank three anonymous Journal of Linguistics referees for helping us to significantly improve this paper. Jeruen E. Dery was supported by German Federal Ministry of Education and Research Grant No. 01UG0711.

References

Abeillé, Anne, Hemforth, Barbara, Winckel, Elodie & Gibson, Edward. 2018. A construction-conflict explanation of the subject-island constraint. Poster presented at the 31st Annual CUNY Conference on Human Sentence Processing. UC Davis, 565–566. https://ucdavis.app.box.com/s/iu2ox5ntrkk6iwxmq2s48okqo7prlk2i.Google Scholar
Almor, Amit. 2000. Constraints and mechanisms in theories of anaphor processing. In Crocker, Matthew W., Pickering, Martin J. & Clifton, Charles (eds.), Architectures and mechanisms for language processing, 341354. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Altmann, Gerry T. M. & Kamide, Yuki. 1999. Incremental interpretation at verbs: Restricting the domain of subsequent reference. Cognition 73, 247264.Google Scholar
Amy, Gérard & Noziet, Georges. 1978. Memory requirements and local ambiguities of parsing strategies. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 20.3, 233250.Google Scholar
Arai, Manabu & Keller, Frank. 2013. The use of verb-specific information for prediction in sentence processing. Language and Cognitive Processes 4.28, 525560.Google Scholar
Ariel, Mira. 2001. Accessibility theory: An overview. In Sanders, Ted J. M., Schilperoord, Joost & Spooren, Wilbert (eds.), Text representation: Linguistic and psycholinguistic aspects, 2987. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Bates, Douglas, Maechler, Martin, Bolker, Ben & Walker, Stevern. 2014. lme4: Linear mixed-effects models using ‘Eigen’ and S4. R package version 1.1-7. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=lme4.Google Scholar
Bayer, Josef & Salzmann, Martin. 2013. That–trace effects and resumption: How improper movement can be repaired. In Brandt, Patrick & Fuß, Eric (eds.), Repairs: The added value of being wrong, 275333. Berlin: de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Boeckx, Cedric. 2003. Islands and chains: Resumption as stranding. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Boston, Marisa Ferrara, Hale, John, Kliegl, Reinhold, Patil, Umesh & Vasishth, Shravan. 2008. Parsing costs as predictors of reading difficulty: An evaluation using the Potsdam Sentence Corpus. Journal of Eye Movement Research 2, 112.Google Scholar
Chafe, Wallace L. 1994. Discourse, consciousness, and time: The flow and displacement of conscious experience in speaking and writing. Chicago, IL: University Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Chaves, Rui P. 2012. On the grammar of extraction and coordination. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 30.2, 465512.Google Scholar
Chaves, Rui P. 2013. An expectation-based account of subject islands and parasitism. Journal of Linguistics 49.2, 285327.Google Scholar
Chaves, Rui P. 2018. Freezing as a probabilistic phenomenon. In Hartmann, Jutta, Knecht, Marion, Konietzko, Andreas & Winkler, Susanne (eds.), Freezing: Theoretical approaches and empirical domains (Studies in Generative Grammar), 404429. Berlin & New York: De Gruyter Mouton.Google Scholar
Chaves, Rui P. & Dery, Jeruen E.. 2014. Which subject islands will the acceptability of improve with repeated exposure? In Santana-LaBarge, Robert E. (ed.), The 31st West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics (WCCFL 31), 96106. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.Google Scholar
Chen, Evan, Gibson, Edward & Wolf, Florian. 2005. Online syntactic storage costs in sentence comprehension. Journal of Memory and Language 52, 144169.Google Scholar
Chesi, Cristiano & Bianchi, Valentina. 2014. Subject islands, reconstruction, and the flow of the computation. Linguistic Inquiry 45.4, 525569.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 1973. Conditions on transformations. In Anderson, Stephen & Kiparsky, Paul (eds.), A Festschrift for Morris Halle, 232286. New York: Holt, Reinhart & Winston.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 1977. Essays on form and interpretation. New York: North-Holland.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 1995. The Minimalist program. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 2008. On phases. In Freidin, Robert, Michaels, David, Otero, Carlos P. & Zubizarreta, Maria Luisa (eds.), Foundational issues in linguistic theory: Essays in honor of Jean-Roger Vergnaud, 133165. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Chung, Sandra & McCloskey, James. 1983. On the interpretation of certain island facts in GPSG. Linguistic Inquiry 14, 703714.Google Scholar
Clark, Herbert H. & Wasow, Thomas. 1998. Repeating words in spontaneous speech. Cognitive Psychology 37, 201242.Google Scholar
Clausen, David R.2011. Informativity and acceptability of complex subject islands. Presented at the 24th Annual CUNY Sentence Processing Conference, Stanford, CA.Google Scholar
Clifton, Charles E. Jr. & Frazier, Lyn. 1989. Comprehending sentences with long distance dependencies. In Tanenhaus, Michael K. & Carlson, Gregory N. (eds.), Linguistic structure in language processing, 273317. Dordrecht: Kluwer.Google Scholar
Crain, Stephen & Fodor, Janet D.. 1985. How can grammars help parsers? In Dowty, David, Kartunnen, Lauri & Zwicky, Arnold M. (eds.), Natural language parsing: Psycholinguistic, computational, and theoretical perspectives, 94128. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Crawford, Jean. 2011. Using syntactic satiation effects to investigate subject islands. In Jaehoon Choi, E. Alan Hogue, Jeffrey Punske, Deniz Tat, Jessamyn Schertz & Alex Trueman (eds.), Proceedings of the 29th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics (WCCFL 29), University of Arizona, 38–45. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.Google Scholar
Creel, Sarah C., Aslin, Richard N. & Tanenhaus, Michael K.. 2008. Heeding the voice of experience: The role of talker variation in lexical access. Cognition 106, 633664.Google Scholar
Culicover, Peter W. 1999. Syntactic nuts: Hard cases, syntactic theory, and language acquisition (Foundations of Grammar, vol. 2). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Culicover, Peter W. 2013. Grammar & complexity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Davies, Mark. 2008. The Corpus of Contemporary American English: 450 million words, 1990–present. Available at http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/.Google Scholar
Deane, Paul D. 1992. Grammar in mind and brain. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
DeLong, Katherine A., Urbach, Thomas P. & Kutas, Marta. 2005. Probabilistic word pre-activation during language comprehension inferred from electrical brain activity. Nature Neuroscience 8.8, 11171121.Google Scholar
Demberg, Vera & Keller, Frank. 2008. Data from eye-tracking corpora as evidence for theories of syntactic processing complexity. Cognition 109.2, 193210.Google Scholar
Do, Monica L. & Kaiser, Elsi. 2017. The relationship between syntactic satiation and syntactic priming: A first look. Frontiers in Psychology 8, 1851. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01851.Google Scholar
Drummond, Alex. 2013. Ibex 0.3.7 manual. http://spellout.net/latest_ibex_manual.pdf.Google Scholar
Eady, Stephen J. & Fodor, Janet D.. 1981. Is center-embedding a source of processing difficulty? Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, New York.Google Scholar
Engdahl, Elisabet. 1983. Parasitic gaps. Linguistics and Philosophy 6, 334.Google Scholar
Enochson, Kelly & Culbertson, Jennifer. 2015. Collecting psycholinguistic response time data using Amazon Mechanical Turk. PLoS ONE 10(3): e0116946. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116946.Google Scholar
Epstein, Richard. 2001. The definite article, accessibility, and the construction of discourse referents. Cognitive Linguistics 12, 333378.Google Scholar
Erteschik-Shir, Nomi. 1981. More on extractability from quasi-NPs. Linguistic Inquiry 12, 665670.Google Scholar
Erteschik-Shir, Nomi & Lappin, Shalom. 1979. Dominance and the functional explanation of island phenomena. Theoretical Linguistics 6, 4186.Google Scholar
Farmer, Thomas A., Fine, Alex B., Yan, Shaorong, Cheimariou, Spyridoula & Jaeger, T. Florian. 2014. Error-driven adaptation of higher-level expectations during natural reading. The 36th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (CogSci 2014), Quebec City, 2181–2186.Google Scholar
Federmeier, Kara D. & Kutas, Marta. 1999. A rose by any other name: Long-term memory structure and sentence processing. Journal of Memory and Language 41, 469495.Google Scholar
Ferreira, Fernanda. 1991. Effects of length and syntactic complexity on initiation times for prepared utterances. Journal of Memory and Language 30.2, 210233.Google Scholar
Fiengo, Robert & Higginbotham, James. 1981. Opacity in NP. Linguistic Analysis 7.4, 395421.Google Scholar
Fine, Alex B. & Jaeger, T. Florian. 2013. Evidence for implicit learning in syntactic comprehension. Cognitive Science 37.3, 578591. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12022.Google Scholar
Fine, Alex B., Jaeger, T. Florian, Farmer, Thomas A. & Qian, Ting. 2013. Rapid expectation adaptation during syntactic comprehension. PLoS ONE 8(10): e77661. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0077661.Google Scholar
Fine, Alex B., Qian, Ting, Jaeger, T. Florian & Jacobs, Robert A.. 2010. Syntactic adaptation in language comprehension. ACL Workshop on Cognitive Modeling and Computational Linguistics, 1826. Uppsala, Sweden: Association for Computational Linguistics.Google Scholar
Frazier, Lyn. 1987. Syntactic processing: Evidence from Dutch. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 5, 519559.Google Scholar
Fukuda, Shin, Nakao, Chizuru, Omaki, Akira & Polinsky, Maria. 2018. Revisiting subject–object asymmetry: Subextraction in Japanese. In Theodore Levin & Ryo Masuda (eds.), Proceedings of the 10th Workshop on Altaic Formal Linguistics (WAFL10) (MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 87).Google Scholar
Futrell, Richard. 2012. Processing effects of the expectation of informativity. MA thesis, Stanford University.Google Scholar
Gibson, Edward. 2006. The interaction of top–down and bottom–up statistics in the resolution of syntactic category ambiguity. Journal of Memory and Language 54, 363388.Google Scholar
Gibson, Edward, Piantadosi, Steve & Fedorenko, Kristina. 2011. Using Mechanical Turk to obtain and analyze English acceptability judgments. Language & Linguistics Compass 5.8, 509524.Google Scholar
Goldberg, Adele E. 2006. Constructions at work: The nature of generalization in language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Goldberg, Adele E. 2013. Backgrounded constituents cannot be extracted. In Sprouse, Jon & Hornstein, Norbert (eds.), Experimental syntax and island effects, 221238. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Goodall, Grant. 2011. Syntactic satiation and the inversion effect in English and Spanish wh- questions. Syntax 14, 2947.Google Scholar
Haegeman, Liliane, Jiménez-Fernández, Ángel & Radford, Andrew. 2013. Deconstructing the subject condition: Cumulative constraint violation and tolerance thresholds. The Linguistic Review 31.1, 73150.Google Scholar
Hiramatsu, Kazuko. 2000. Accessing linguistic competence: Evidence from children’s and adults’ acceptability judgments. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Connecticut.Google Scholar
Hofmeister, Philip, Casasanto, Laura Staum & Sag, Ivan A.. 2013. Islands in the grammar? Standards of evidence. In Sprouse, Jon & Hornstein, Norbert (eds.), Experimental syntax and islands effects, 4263. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hofmeister, Philip & Sag, Ivan A.. 2010. Cognitive constraints and island effects. Language 86.2, 366415.Google Scholar
Huang, Cheng-Teh James. 1982. Logical relations in chinese and the theory of grammar. Ph.D. dissertation, MIT.Google Scholar
Huddleston, Rodney, K. Pullum, Geoffrey & Peterson, Peter. 2002. Relative clause constructions and unbounded dependencies. In Rodney Huddleston & Geoffrey K. Pullum et al., The Cambridge grammar of the English language, 1031–1096. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ivanova, Iva, Pickering, Martin J., Branigan, Holly P., McLean, Janet F. & Costa, Albert. 2011. The comprehension of anomalous sentences: Evidence from structural priming. Cognition 122, 193209.Google Scholar
Jackendoff, Ray S. 2002. Foundations of language: Brain, meaning, grammar, evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Jiménez-Fernández, Ángel. 2009. On the composite nature of subject islands: A phase-based approach. SKY Journal of Linguistics 22, 91138.Google Scholar
Jurka, Johannes, Nakao, Chizuru & Omaki, Akira. 2011. Its not the end of the CED as we know it: Revisiting German and Japanese Subject Islands. In Washburn, Mary Byram, McKinney-Bock, Katherine, Varis, Erika, Sawyer, Ann & Tomaszewicz, Barbara (eds.), Proceedings of The 28th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics (WCCFL 28), 124132. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.Google Scholar
Just, Marcel Adam, Carpenter, Patricia A. & Wooley, Jacqueline D.. 1982. Paradigms and processes in reading comprehension. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 111.2, 228238.Google Scholar
Kamide, Yuki, Scheepers, Christoph & Altmann, Gerry T. M.. 2003. Integration of syntactic and semantic information in predictive processing: Crosslinguistic evidence from German and English. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 32.1, 3755.Google Scholar
Kaschak, Michael P. 2006. What this construction needs is generalized. Memory & Cognition 34.2, 368379.Google Scholar
Kayne, Richard S. 1981. ECP extensions. Linguistic Inquiry 12, 93133.Google Scholar
Kayne, Richard S. 1983. Connectedness. Linguistic Inquiry 14, 223249.Google Scholar
Kehler, Andrew. 2002. Coherence, reference, and the theory of grammar. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.Google Scholar
Keller, Frank. 2003. A probabilistic parser as a model of global processing difficulty. In Alterman, Richard & Kirsh, David (eds.), Proceedings of The 25th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (CogSci 2003), Boston, MA, 646651.Google Scholar
Kluender, Robert. 1992. Deriving island constraints from principles of predication. In Goodluck, Helen & Rochemont, Michael (eds.), Island constraints: Theory, acquisition and processing, 223258. Dordrecht: Kluwer.Google Scholar
Kluender, Robert. 1998. On the distinction between strong islands and weak islands: A processing perspective. In Culicover, Peter W. & McNally, Louise (eds.), The limits of syntax (Syntax and Semantics 29), 241279. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kluender, Robert. 2004. Are subject islands subject to a processing account?In Chand, Vineeta, Kelleher, Ann, Rodríguez, Angelo J. & Schmeiser, Benjamin (eds.), Proceedings of the 23rd West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics (WCCFL 23), 101125. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.Google Scholar
Kluender, Robert & Kutas, Marta. 1993. Subjacency as a processing phenomenon. Language and Cognitive Processes 8, 573633.Google Scholar
Kubota, Yusuke & Lee, Jungmee. 2015. The coordinate structure constraint as a discourse-oriented principle: Further evidence from Japanese and Korean. Language 91.3, 642675.Google Scholar
Kuno, Susumu. 1972. Functional sentence perspective: A case study from Japanese and English. Linguistic Inquiry 3, 299320.Google Scholar
Kuno, Susumu. 1987. Functional syntax: Anaphora, discourse and empathy. Chicago, IL & London: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Kuno, Susumu & Takami, Ken-Ichi. 1993. Grammar and discourse principles: Functional syntax and GB theory. Chicago, IL & London: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Kurtzman, Howeard S. & Crawford, Loren Frost. 1991. Processing parasitic gaps. In Sherer, Tim (ed.), The 21st Annual Meeting of the North Eastern Linguistics Society (NELS 21), 217231. Amherst, MA: LSA Publications.Google Scholar
Kutas, Marta & Hillyard, Steven A.. 1984. Brain potentials during reading reflect word expectancy and semantic association. Nature 5947.307, 161163.Google Scholar
Kuznetsova, Alexandra, Brockhoff, Per Bruun & Christensen, Rune Haubo Bojesen. 2015. Package lmertest. Technical Report. http://cran.uib.no/web/packages/lmerTest/lmerTest.pdf.Google Scholar
Kynette, Donna & Kemper, Susan. 1986. Aging and the loss of grammatical forms: A cross-sectional study of language performance. Language and Communication 6, 6572.Google Scholar
Lambrecht, Knud. 1988. There was a farmer had a dog: Syntactic amalgams revisited. The 14th Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (BLS 14), Berkeley, CA, 319339.Google Scholar
Lambrecht, Knud. 1994. Information structure and sentence form: Topic, focus, and the mental representation of discourse referents. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lambrecht, Knud. 2000. When subjects behave like objects: An analysis of the merging of s and o in sentence-focus constructions across languages. Studies in Language 24.3, 611682.Google Scholar
Larson-Hall, Jenniver & Herrington, R.. 2010. Improving data analysis in second language acquisition by utilizing modern developments in applied statistics. Applied Linguistics 31, 368390.Google Scholar
Lasnik, Howard & Saito, Mamoru. 1992. Move 𝛼: Conditions on its application and output. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Lau, Ellen, Stroud, Clare, Plesch, Silke & Phillips, Colin. 2006. The role of structural prediction in rapid syntactic analysis. Brain and Language 1.98, 7488.Google Scholar
Lau, Jey Han, Clark, Alexander & Lappin, Shalom. 2015. Unsupervised prediction of acceptability judgements. Proceedings of The 53rd Annual Conference of the Association of Computational Linguistics, Beijing, 16181628. Beijing, China: Association for Computational Linguistics.Google Scholar
Levine, Robert D. & Hukari, Thomas E.. 2006. The unity of unbounded dependency constructions. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.Google Scholar
Levine, Robert D., Hukari, Thomas E. & Calcagno, Michael. 2001. Parasitic gaps in English: Some overlooked cases and their theoretical implications. In Culicover, Peter W. & Postal, Paul M. (eds.), Parasitic gaps, 181222. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Levine, Robert D. & Sag, Ivan A.. 2003. Some empirical issues in the grammar of extraction. In Müller, Stefan (ed.), The HPSG-2003 Conference, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 236256. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.Google Scholar
Levy, Roger. 2008. Expectation-based syntactic comprehension. Cognition 3.106, 11261177.Google Scholar
Levy, Roger & Andrew, Galen. 2006. Tregex and Tsurgeon: Tools for querying and manipulating tree data structures. Proceedings of The 5th International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2006), 22312234. Genoa, Italy: European Language Resources Association.Google Scholar
Levy, Roger, Fedorenko, Evelina, Breen, Mara & Gibson, Ted. 2012. The processing of extraposed structures in English. Cognition 12.1, 1236.Google Scholar
Levy, Roger & Keller, Frank. 2013. Expectation and locality effects in German verb-final structures. Journal of Memory and Language 2.68, 199222.Google Scholar
Luka, Barbara & Barsalou, Lawrence. 2005. Structural facilitation: Mere exposure effects for grammatical acceptability as evidence for syntactic priming in comprehension. Journal of Memory and Language 52, 436459.Google Scholar
Mak, Willem M., Vonk, Wietske & Schriefers, Herbert. 2008. Discourse structure and relative clause processing. Memory & Cognition 36, 170181.Google Scholar
Marcus, Mitchell, Santorini, Beatrice & Marcinkiewicz, Mary Ann. 1993. Building a large annotated corpus of English: The Penn Treebank. Computational Linguistics 19, 313330.Google Scholar
Matchin, William, Almeida, Diogo, Sprouse, Jon & Hickok, Gregory. 2018. Subject island violations involve increased semantic processing, but not increased verbal working memory resources: Evidence from fMRI. Poster presented at the 31st Annual CUNY Conference on Human Sentence Processing, UC Davis, 64–65. https://ucdavis.app.box.com/s/iu2ox5ntrkk6iwxmq2s48okqo7prlk2i.Google Scholar
McCawley, James D. 1981. The syntax and semantics of English relative clauses. Lingua 53, 99149.Google Scholar
Melnick, Robin, Jaeger, T. Florian & Wasow, Thomas. 2011. Speakers employ fine-grained probabilistic knowledge. Presented at the 85th Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, Pittsburgh, PA.Google Scholar
Menn, Lise. 1974. Assertions not made by the main clause of a sentence. Studies in the Linguistic Sciences (University of Illinois) 4.1, 132143.Google Scholar
Michaelis, Laura A. & Francis, Hartwell S.. 2007. Lexical subjects and the conflation strategy. In Hedberg, Nancy & Zacharski, Ron (eds.), Topics in the grammar–pragmatics interface: In honor of Jeanette K. Gundel, 1948. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Michel, Daniel. 2014. Individual cognitive measures and working memory accounts of syntactic island phenomena. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego.Google Scholar
Müller, Gereon. 2011. Constraints on displacement: A phase-based approach (Language Faulty and Beyond 7). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Munro, Robert, Bethard, Steven, Kuperman, Victor, Lai, Vicky, Melnick, Robin, Potts, Christopher C., Schnoebelen, Tyler & Tily, Harry. 2010. Crowdsourcing and language studies: The new generation of linguistic data. Proceedings of The NAACL-2010 Workshop on Creating Speech and Language Data with Amazons Mechanical Turk, 122130. Stroudsburg, PA: Association for Computational Linguistics.Google Scholar
Ni, Weijia, Crain, Stephen & Shankweiler, Donald. 1996. Sidestepping garden paths: Assessing the contributions of syntax, semantics and plausibility in resolving ambiguities. Language and Cognitive Processes 11.3, 283334.Google Scholar
Nunes, Jairo. 2004. Linearization of chains and sideward movement. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Nunes, Jairo & Uriagereka, Juan. 2000. Cyclicity and extraction domains. Syntax 3, 2043.Google Scholar
Petten, Cyma Van & Kutas, Marta. 1990. Interactions between sentence context and word frequency in event-related brain potentials. Memory & Cognition 18.4, 380393.Google Scholar
Phillips, Colin. 2006. The real-time status of island phenomena. Language 82, 795823.Google Scholar
Phillips, Colin. 2013. Some arguments and non-arguments for reductionist accounts of syntactic phenomena. Language and Cognitive Processes 28, 156187.Google Scholar
Phillips, Colin, Kazanina, Nina & Abada, Shani H.. 2005. ERP effects of the processing of syntactic long-distance dependencies. Cognitive Brain Research 22.3, 407428.Google Scholar
Phillips, Colin, Wagers, Matthew W. & Lau, Ellen F.. 2011. Grammatical illusions and selective fallibility in real-time language comprehension. In Runner, Jeffrey T. (ed.), Experiments at the interfaces (Syntax and Semantics 37), 147180. Bingley: Emerald.Google Scholar
Pickering, Martin [J.] & Barry, Guy. 1991. Sentence processing without empty categories. Language and Cognitive Processes 6, 229259.Google Scholar
Pickering, Martin J., Barton, Stephen & Shillcock, Richard. 1994. Unbounded dependencies, island constraints and processing complexity. In Clifton, Charles E., Frazier, Lyn & Rayner, Keith (eds.), Perspectives on sentence processing, 199224. London: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Polinsky, Maria, Gallo, Carlos Gómez, Graff, Peter, Kravtchenko, Ekaterina, Morgan, Adam Milton & Sturgeon, Anne. 2013. Subject islands are different. In Sprouse, Jon & Hornstein, Norbert (eds.), Experimental syntax and islands effects, 286309. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pollard, Carl & Sag, Ivan A.. 1994. Head-driven phrase structure grammar. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press & Stanford, CA: CSLI.Google Scholar
Rackowski, Andrea & Richards, Norvin. 2005. Phase edge and extraction. Linguistic Inquiry 36, 565599.Google Scholar
Rizzi, Luigi. 2007. On some properties of criterial freezing. CISCL Working Papers on Language and Cognition 1, 145158.Google Scholar
Roark, Brian, Bachrach, Asaf, Cardenas, Carlos & Pallier, Christopher. 2009. Deriving lexical and syntactic expectation-based measures for psycholinguistic modeling via incremental top–down parsing. Proceedings of The 2009 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, Singapore, 324333.Google Scholar
Roland, Douglas, Mauner, Gail, O’Meara, Carolyn & Yun, Hongoak. 2012. Discourse expectations and relative clause processing. Journal of Memory and Language 66, 479508.Google Scholar
Ross, John R.1967. Constraints on variables in syntax. Ph.D. dissertation, MIT. [Published in 1986 as Infinite syntax! Norwood, NJ: Ablex.]Google Scholar
Sabel, Joachim. 2002. A minimalist analysis of syntactic islands. Linguistic Review 19, 271315.Google Scholar
Sag, Ivan A., Hofmeister, Philip & Snider, Neal. 2007. Processing complexity in subjacency violations: The complex noun phrase constraint. The 43rd Annual Meeting of The Chicago Linguistic Society (CLS 43). Chicago, IL: Chicago Linguistic Society.Google Scholar
Santorini, Beatrice. 2007. (Un?)expected movement. Ms., University of Pennsylvania. Available at http://www.ling.upenn.edu/ beatrice/examples/movement.html(accessed 2 January 2012).Google Scholar
Shimojo, Mitsuaki. 2002. Functional theories of island phenomena: The case of Japanese. Studies in Language 26, 67123.Google Scholar
Smith, Nathaniel J. & Levy, Roger. 2008. Optimal processing times in reading: A formal model and empirical investigation. The 30th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (CogSci 2008), Washington, D.C., 595600.Google Scholar
Snyder, William. 2000. An experimental investigation of syntactic satiation effects. Linguistic Inquiry 31, 575582.Google Scholar
Snyder, William. 2017. On the nature of syntactic satiation. Ms., University of Connecticut.Google Scholar
Sprouse, Jon. 2007. Continuous acceptability, categorical grammaticality, and experimental syntax. Biolinguistics 1, 118129.Google Scholar
Sprouse, Jon. 2009. Revisiting satiation: Evidence for an equalization response strategy. Linguistic Inquiry 40.1, 329341.Google Scholar
Sprouse, Jon. 2011. A validation of Amazon Mechanical Turk for the collection of acceptability judgments in linguistic theory. Behavior Research Methods 43, 155167.Google Scholar
Sprouse, Jon, Caponigro, Ivano, Greco, Ciro & Cecchetto, Carlo. 2015. Experimental syntax and the variation of island effects in English and Italian. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 34.1, 307344.Google Scholar
Staub, Adrian & Clifton, Charles E. Jr. 2006. Syntactic prediction in language comprehension: Evidence from either ... or . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 32.2, 425436.Google Scholar
Stepanov, Arthur. 2007. The end of CED? Minimalism and extraction domains. Syntax 10.1, 80126.Google Scholar
Stowe, Laurie A. 1986. Parsing wh-constructions: Evidence for on-line gap location. Language and Cognitive Processes 1, 227245.Google Scholar
Stowe, Laurie A., Tanenhaus, Michael K. & Carlson, Gregory N.. 1991. Filling gaps online: Use of lexical and semantic information in sentence processing. Language and Speech 34, 319340.Google Scholar
Sussman, Rachel S. & Sedivy, Julie C.. 2003. The time-course of processing syntactic dependencies: Evidence from eye movements during spoken narratives. Language and Cognitive Processes 18, 143163.Google Scholar
Tabor, Whitney, Juliano, Cornell & Tanenhaus, Michael K.. 1997. Parsing in a dynamical system: An attractor-based account of the interaction of lexical and structural constraints in sentence processing. Language and Cognitive Processes 2–3.12, 211271.Google Scholar
Takahashi, Daiko. 1994. Minimality of movement. Ph.D. thesis, University of Connecticut.Google Scholar
Takami, Ken-ichi. 1992. Preposition stranding: From syntactic to functional analyses. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Tollan, Rebecca & Heller, Daphna. 2016. Elvis Presley on an island: Wh dependency formation inside complex NPs. In Hammerly, Christopher & Prickett, Brandon (eds.), The 46th Meeting of the North East Linguistic Society (NELS 46), vol. 3, 221222. Amherst, MA: Graduate Linguistics Studet Association (GLSA).Google Scholar
Trueswell, John C. & Tanenhaus, Michael K.. 1994. Semantic influences on parsing: Use of thematic role information in syntactic ambiguity resolution. Journal of Memory and Language 33.3, 258318.Google Scholar
Tsiamtsiouris, Jim & Cairns, Helen Smith. 2009. Effects of syntactic complexity and sentence-structure priming on speech initiation time in adults who stutter. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 52.6, 16231639.Google Scholar
van Schijndel, Marten, Schuler, William & Culicover, Peter W.. 2014. Frequency effects in the processing of unbounded dependencies. Proceedings of the 36th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (CogSci 2014), Quebec City.Google Scholar
Van Valin, Robert D. Jr. 1986. Pragmatics, island phenomena, and linguistic competence. Papers from the Parasession on Pragmatics and Grammatical Theory, vol. 22(2), 223233. Chicago, IL: Chicago Linguistic Society.Google Scholar
Van Valin, Robert D. Jr. 1995. Toward a functionalist account of so-called extraction constraints. In Devriendt, Betty, Goossens, Louis & van der Auwera, Johan (eds.), Complex structures: A functionalist perspective, 2660. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Wagers, Matthew W. & Phillips, Colin. 2009. Multiple dependencies and the role of the grammar in real-time comprehension. Journal of Linguistics 45.2, 395433.Google Scholar
Wanner, Eric & Maratsos, Michael. 1978. An ATN approach to comprehension. In Hale, Morris, Bresnan, Joan & Miller, George A. (eds.), Linguistic theory and psychological reality, 119161. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Warren, Tessa & Gibson, Edward. 2002. The influence of referential processing on sentence complexity. Cognition 85, 79112.Google Scholar
Warren, Tessa & Gibson, Edward. 2005. Effects of NP type and in reading cleft sentences in English. Language and Cognitive Processes 20, 751767.Google Scholar
Wilcox, Rand. 2005. Introduction to robust estimation and hypothesis testing. San Francisco, CA: Elsevier.Google Scholar