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In addition to the articles already cited, the following articles have informed my views on the constitutionality of mandatory DNA sampling of convicted offenders and arrestees. Carnahan, S. J., “The Supreme Court's Primary Purpose Test: A Roadblock to the National Law Enforcement DNA Database,” Nebraska Law Review 83 (2004): 1–38; Dodson, A. J., “DNA ‘Line-Ups’ Based on a Reasonable Suspicion Standard,” University of Colorado Law Review 71 (2000): 221–254; Drobner, F. W., “DNA Dragnets: Constitutional Aspects of Mass DNA Identification Testing,” Capital University Law Review 28 (2000): 479–511; Imwinkelried, E. J. & Kaye, D. H., “DNA Typing: Emerging or Neglected Issues,” Washington Law Review 76 (2001): 413–474; Kaye, D. H., “The Constitutionality of DNA Sampling on Arrest,” Cornell Journal of Law and Public Policy 10 (2001): 455–509 [hereinafter Kaye, , “DNA Sampling on Arrest”]; Kaye, D. H., “Two Fallacies About DNA Data Banks for Law Enforcement,” Brooklyn Law Review 67 (2001): 179–206 [hereinafter Kaye, , “Two Fallacies”]; Kaye, D.H. and Smith, M. E., “DNA Identification Databases: Legality, Legitimacy, and the Case for Population-wide Coverage” Wisconcin Law Review (2003): 413–459. Rothstein, M. A. & Carnahan, S., “Legal and Policy Issues in Expanding the Scope of Law Enforcement DNA Data Banks,” Brooklyn Law Review 67 (2001): 127–178; Scherer, R. C., “Mandatory Genetic Dogtags and the Fourth Amendment: The Need for a New Post-Skinner Test,” Georgetown Law Journal 85 (1997): 2007–2038; Will, J. F., “Comment: DNA as Property: Implications on the Constitutionality of DNA Dragnets,” University of Pittsburg Law Review 65 (2003):129–143. Additional articles on offender DNA databases are cited in Kaye, , “DNA Sampling on Arrest,” supra at 459, n.18. For an excellent discussion of the government's authority to use and analyze information obtained from lawful searches and seizures, see Krent, H. J., “Of Diaries and Data Banks Use Restrictions Under the Fourth Amendment,” Texas Law Review 74 (1995): 49–100.Google Scholar

The California DNA Fingerprint, Unsolved Crime and Innocence Protection Act (Proposition 69), approved by voters on November 2, 2004, is even more expansive than the Louisiana and Virginia laws. California Official Voter Information Guide, Text of Proposed Law, Proposition 69, at <http://www.voterguide.ss.ca.gov/propositions/prop69text.pdf> [hereinafter Proposition 69 Text] (last visited January 14, 2005); Winton, R. and Blankstein, A., “Law Officials Ready to Start Expanding DNA Database,” Los Angeles Times, Nov. 4, 2004, at 8. Proposition 69 mandates collection of DNA samples from adults and juveniles convicted of felonies, sex offenses, and arson offenses, and adults arrested for or charged with felony murder, voluntary manslaughter, or sex offenses. By 2009, the law will require a DNA sample from every adult arrested for or charged with a felony. California Official Voter Information Guide, Summary and Legislative Analysis, Proposition 69, at <http://www.ss.ca.gov/elections/bp_nov04/prop_69_legislative_analysis.pdf> (last visited February 3, 2005). The DNA profiles will be made available to local, state, federal, and international authorities. Proposition 69 Text. On December 7, 2004 the American Civil Liberties Union of Southern California [ACLU] and other groups filed a class action lawsuit claiming that Proposition 69 violates the Fourth and Fourteenth Amendments. Complaint, Weber et al. v. Lockyer, et al. (N.D. Cal.), at <http://www.aclu-sc.Org/attachments/p/Prop69_Complaint.pdf.> (last visited January 14, 2005) Some of the individuals named as plaintiffs included the following: Michael Weber, a San Francisco resident, who was arrested during an anti-war protest but whose charges were later dismissed. Rodney Ware, a Sacramento County man who, because he was the victim of identity theft, was arrested on a felony warrant. Because the actual target of the warrant had used Ware's name under false pretenses, the warrant was ultimately found not to pertain to Ware, and criminal charges were not pursued against Ware. James Blair, a resident of Alameda County and a user of medical marijuana. Blair was arrested for offenses related to his possession and use of marijuana, but the charges were later dismissed after Blair's physician appeared in court and testified that Blair's possession and use of marijuana were pursuant to the physician's medical advice. And Rachel Delucci-Youngberg, a Shasta County resident who was charged and prosecuted for murder after she shot her abusive husband in self-defense. Delucci-Youngberg was subsequently acquitted of the murder charge. Id. at 6–8.Google Scholar

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Professor Kaye contends that “the rationale of Kyllo is quite limited” and does not dictate the conclusion that DNA sampling constitutes a search. Kaye, , “DNA Sampling on Arrest,” supra note 83, at 480, n.104.Google Scholar

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Id. at 616–17. Skinner also concluded that the blood tests mandated by the regulations constituted searches. Furthermore, Skinner plainly stated that the “ensuing chemical analysis of [a blood] sample to obtain physiological data is a further invasion of the tested employee's privacy interests.” Id. at 616. See also Krent, , supra note 83, at 69 (explaining why “subsequent governmental use of information may intrude upon privacy far more than the initial seizure itself, just as the chemical analysis of blood and urine samples may constitute a greater intrusion into privacy than the collection of the sample”) (footnote omitted); Scherer, , supra note 83, at 2026 (“[I]t is not the taking of [a DNA sample] that is the most objectionable search. Rather, it is the analysis that poses a grave threat to the privacy interests of millions of Americans”) Despite Skinner's plain language, Professor Kaye insists that Skinner did not decide whether “laboratory analysis of a legitimately acquired sample is a ‘second search’ and lower courts have concluded that it is not.” Kaye, , “Two Fallacies,” supra note 83, at 202, n.96 (citations omitted).Google Scholar

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See e.g., Scherer, , supra note 83, at 2021. The author notes that the information obtained from DNA is much more extensive than the information obtained from the drug and alcohol tests in Skinner and its progeny. First, unlike drug or alcohol tests which measure the concentration of a substance at a particular point in time, “DNA analysis maps immutable, lifelong characteristics of an individual. Indeed, immutability is what makes DNA such an ideal identifier.” Id. Moreover, while the tests done in Skinner “garnered information solely about the government employee, the information revealed in a DNA analysis is not unique only to that donor. Information from a donor's genome also reveals the private concerns of the donor's parents, children, and siblings” Id. (footnote omitted).Google Scholar

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Id. at 742. While Justice Blackmun concluded that the facts presented no special need for dispensing with the warrant requirement, his comments implied that he might be willing to find that certain public employer searches of employees are consistent with the special needs exception. See also, Schulhofer, , supra note 126, at 101–102 (noting that Justice Blackmun “agreed that some employer searches could be valid under a diluted standard, but found no ‘special need’ in Ortega itself”)Google Scholar

483 U.S. 868 (1987).Google Scholar

Id. at 873.Google Scholar

Id. at 874.Google Scholar

Id. at 873–74.Google Scholar

Id. at 875.Google Scholar

Id. Four Justices dissented in Griffin. Writing for the dissenters, Justice Blackmun argued that the “need for supervision in probation” presents a special need beyond the normal need for law enforcement. Id. at 881 (Blackmun, J., dissenting). Accordingly, Justice Blackmun argued that a special need justified a search of probationer's home on a lesser level of suspicion than probable cause, namely, reasonable suspicion. But he would require that such a search be authorized by a judicial warrant as a means of “protecting a probationer's privacy.” Id. at 882.Google Scholar

Two aspects of Griffin indicated that a majority of the Court in 1987 would apply the special needs exception with consider leeway in favor of the state. First, although the Court ruled that the search of Griffin's home was reasonable because, inter alia, it was done pursuant to an administrative regulation that required “reasonable grounds” for a search, the facts in Griffin provided, at best, a “feeble justification” for a search. Griffin, 483 U.S. at 887–90 (Blackmun, J., dissenting) (explaining that the facts did not justify a search even under a reasonable suspicion standard). Second, the clear presence of a law enforcement motive for the challenged search did not negate the applicability of the special needs exception. As Justice Scalia would subsequently acknowledge years later, “the special-needs doctrine was developed, and is ordinarily employed, precisely to enable searches by law enforcement officials who, of course, ordinarily have a law enforcement objective” for their searches. Ferguson 532 U.S. at 100 (Scalia, J., dissenting). A majority of the current Court, however, has not embraced Justice Scalia's position. See infra notes 186–204 and accompanying text.Google Scholar

Schulhofer, , supra note 126, at 115.Google Scholar

489 U.S. 602 (1989).Google Scholar

489 U.S. 656 (1989).Google Scholar

Skinner, 489 U.S. at 620.Google Scholar

Id. at 623 (citations omitted).Google Scholar

Id. at 620–21 (quoting 49 CFR § 219.1(a) (1987) [footnote omitted].Google Scholar

Id. at 621, n.5.Google Scholar

Id. (citations omitted).Google Scholar

Id. at 621, n.5. (“each sample provided under [the regulations]...may be available to...a party in litigation upon service of appropriate compulsory process on the custodian”), quoting 49 C.F.R § 219.211(d) (1987). The revised version of 49 C.F.R. § 219.211(d) omits any reference to making test results available to third parties in litigation.Google Scholar

Id. at 650 (Marshall, J., dissenting).Google Scholar

Id. at 651–52.Google Scholar

Schulhofer, , supra note 126, at 138.Google Scholar

Professor Schulhofer does recognize that “[r]outine law enforcement involvement [and access to test results], together with slender or half-hearted regulatory and remedial goals, would indicate that the administrative features of the program were merely pretextual. If so, the program would not involve ‘special needs, beyond the normal need for law enforcement,’ and the probable cause requirement would have to apply.” Id.Google Scholar

Von Raab, 489 U.S. at 666.Google Scholar

See Schulhofer, , supra note 126, at 140 (“In one sense, Von Raab presents a stronger case for administrative treatment [than Skinner] because law enforcement use of test results was prohibited. Von Raab appears to involve a purely employment-related program”)Google Scholar

See Von Raab, 489 U.S. at 667 (under the policy, “every employee who seeks a transfer to a covered position knows that he must take a drug test, and is likewise aware of the procedures the Service must follow in administering the test. A covered employee is simply not subject ‘to the discretion of the official in the field.’ The process becomes automatic when the employee elects to apply for, and thereafter pursue, a covered position”)Google Scholar

See id. at 674.Google Scholar

515 U.S. 646 (1995).Google Scholar

536 U.S. 822 (2002).Google Scholar

See Acton, 515 U.S. at 653.Google Scholar

536 U.S. at 830 (quoting Acton, 515 U.S. at 656).Google Scholar

515 U.S. at 658 (footnote omitted).Google Scholar

536 U.S. at 833.Google Scholar

520 U.S. 305 (1997).Google Scholar

Id. at 309. Only Chief Justice Rehnquist dissented from the majority opinion.Google Scholar

532 U.S. 67 (2001).Google Scholar

Id. at 84.Google Scholar

Id. (footnote omitted).Google Scholar

Chandler, 520 U.S. at 318 (emphasis added).Google Scholar

Id. at 319.Google Scholar

Id. at 322. Interestingly, in dicta, Justice Ginsburg noted that “where the risk to public safety is substantial and real, blanket suspicionless searches calibrated to the risk may rank as ‘reasonable’ – for example, searches now routine at airports and at entrances to courts and other official buildings.” Id. at 323 (citations omitted) (emphasis added).Google Scholar

Ferguson, 532 U.S. at 78. The previous cases Justice Stevens had in mind were Chandler, Acton, Skinner, and Von Raab. See id., at 78, n.12 (citing cases).Google Scholar

Id. at 79.Google Scholar

Id. at 80.Google Scholar

Id. at 82–83 (footnotes omitted).Google Scholar

Chandler, 520 U.S. at 322.Google Scholar

Justice Ginsburg's opinion on this point marks a change in the law. As Chief Justice Rehnquist noted in his dissent, prior special needs cases had not required the state to establish that its interest was especially important. “Under [previous] precedents, if there was a proper governmental purpose other than law enforcement, there was a ‘special need,’ and the Fourth Amendment then required the familiar balancing between that interest and the individual's privacy interest.” Id. at 325 (Rehnquist, C.J., dissenting). Cf. Ferguson, 532 U.S. at 81 (“In Chandler,...we did not simply accept the State's invocation of a ‘special need.’ Instead, we carried out a ‘close review’ of the scheme at issue before concluding that the need in question was not ‘special,’ as that term has been denned in our cases”)Google Scholar

Justice Kennedy voted to invalidate the policy in Ferguson, but claimed that the majority's distinction between “the ultimate goal and immediate purpose” of the government interests pursued, “lacks foundation” in the Court's special needs cases. Ferguson, 532 U.S. at 86–87. According to Kennedy, all of the special needs cases “have turned upon what the majority terms the policy's ultimate goal.” Id. at 87. Put simply, in deciding whether special needs exist in a particular setting, the Court has always focused on the ultimate goal in carrying out the search, “rather than its proximate purpose.” Id. As Kennedy noted, “although procuring evidence is the immediate result of a successful search, until [Ferguson] that procurement has not been identified as the special need which justifies the search.” Id. at 88.Google Scholar

Id. at 81 (quoting Edmond, 531 U.S. at 44).Google Scholar

Id. at 84, n.20. See also id. at 88 (Kennedy, J., concurring in judgment) (noting that earlier cases did not sanction “the routine inclusion of law enforcement, both in the design of the policy and in using arrests, either threatened or real, to implement the system designed for the special needs objectives.”)Google Scholar

See id. at 81, n.15 (stating that Griffin “is properly read as limited by the fact that probationers have a lesser expectation of privacy than the public at large.”)Google Scholar

Id. at 84.Google Scholar

482 U.S. 691 (1987).Google Scholar

Schulhofer, , supra note 126, at 103.Google Scholar

Burger, 482 U.S. at 693.Google Scholar

Id. at 716.Google Scholar

Ferguson, 532 U.S. at 84, n.21 (citation omitted).Google Scholar

Id. (citation omitted).Google Scholar

Saltzburg, and Capra, , supra note 114, at 419–20.Google Scholar

A good argument can be made that Burger was never intended to be a special needs case. While Burger makes a single reference to the special needs exception, see 482 U.S. at 702, (after describing the lesser privacy interests of vehicle dismantlers, “conclud[ing] that, as in other situations of ‘special need,’” a warrantless search may well be reasonable), the bulk and substance of the Court's analysis is focused on administrative search precedents. Further, Burger never identifies a particular “special need” that justifies the suspicionless search authorized by the statute. Thus, although in a previous article I wrote that the Burger Court “invoked the special needs doctrine to uphold a New York law authorizing warrantless, suspicionless searches of automobile junkyards,” Maclin, T., “Constructing Fourth Amendment Principles From The Government Perspective: Whose Amendment Is It, Anyway?” American Criminal Law Review 25 (1988): 669–742, at 735, in retrospect, that description was probably mistaken. Although Burger certainly shares many similarities to the modern special needs cases, I now believe that Burger is properly categorized with the administrative search cases.Google Scholar

531 U.S. 32 (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Id. at 34.Google Scholar

Id. at 40. In another passage, Justice O'Connor noted the Court's reluctance to “recognize exceptions to the general rule of individualized suspicion where governmental authorities primarily pursue their general crime control ends.” Id. at 43. Standing alone, Edmond appeared to establish a broad rule against roadblocks designed to serve the state's “general interest in crime control.” Four years later, however, the Court demonstrated that the phrase “general crime control” would not be broadly construed. In Illinois v. Lidster, 124 S. Ct. 885 (2004), the Court upheld a roadblock where police stopped cars to ask motorists for information about a crime that occurred at the same location one week earlier. Lidster was seized at the roadblock, arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol, and subsequently prosecuted. The Lidster Court distinguished this roadblock from the illegal roadblock in Edmond because the primary purpose “was not to determine whether a vehicle's occupants were committing a crime, but to ask vehicle occupants, as members of the public, for their help in providing information about a crime in all likelihood committed by others. The police expected the information elicited to help them apprehend, not the vehicle's occupants, but other individuals.” 124 S. Ct. at 889. Lidster demonstrates that Edmonds use of the phrase “general interest in crime control” does not cover “every ‘law enforcement’ objective.” Id. (quoting Edmond, 531 U.S. at 44, n.1).Google Scholar

Edmond, 531 U.S. at 45–46.Google Scholar

Id. at 46.Google Scholar

Id. at 47, n.2; see also id. (“Specifically, we express no view on the question whether police may expand the scope of a license or sobriety checkpoint seizure in order to detect the presence of drugs in a stopped car.”)Google Scholar

Burger, 482 U.S. at 716.Google Scholar

Id. (citation and footnote omitted).Google Scholar

4 W. R. LaFave, Search and Seizure § 9.7(b) at 709 (4th ed. 2004).Google Scholar

Ferguson, 532 U.S. at 84, n.21.Google Scholar

Kaye, , “DNA Sampling on Arrest,” supra note 83, at 496 (noting that “neither Edmond nor Ferguson reaches the more vexing question of what evidence can be used to infer purpose when the government contends that its immediate purpose in instituting an investigative practice is something other than (or in addition to) pure crime control”) (footnote omitted). It is important to note that Edmond's analysis will not be controlling in a special needs context. Although the Court's roadblock cases are sometimes lumped together with the special needs cases, Ferguson clarified that the Court's roadblock cases and special needs cases are separate doctrinal categories. Ferguson, 532 U.S. at 84, n.21.Google Scholar

Ferguson, 532 U.S. at 81 (quoting Edmond, 531 U.S. at 44).Google Scholar

La. R.S. 15 § 602 (2003) (emphasis added).Google Scholar

See supra note 81.Google Scholar

Timberg, , supra note 46.Google Scholar

Sorokin, , supra note 47.Google Scholar

Clines, , supra note 48.Google Scholar

See supra note 50.Google Scholar

La. R.S. § 15:602 (2003).Google Scholar

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Ortega, 480 U.S. at 724 (plurality opinion). See also Von Raab, 489 U.S. at 679 (“Because the testing program adopted by the Customs Service is not designed to serve the ordinary needs of law enforcement...[w]e hold that the suspicionless testing of employees who apply for promotion to positions directly involving the interdiction of illegal drugs, or to positions that require the incumbent to carry a firearm, is reasonable”) See also, Skinner, 489 U.S. at 621 (in upholding urinalysis testing of covered railroad employees, the Court stated “[a]bsent a persuasive showing that the FRA's testing program is [designed to gather criminal evidence], we assess the FRA's scheme in light of its obvious administrative purpose”)Google Scholar

Ferguson, 532 U.S. at 81 (quoting Edmond, 531 U.S. at 44).Google Scholar

Cf. Rothstein, & Carnahan, , supra note 83, at 154 (stating that Edmond and Ferguson raise serious Fourth Amendment concerns with respect to the constitutionality of the data bank laws, and even greater concerns as to the constitutionality of state statutes that require DNA from certain classes of offenders upon arrest”) (footnote omitted). Finally, it should be noted that characterizing DNA searches of arrestees as a “public safety” goal should not justify application of the special needs exception. In many instances, the line between “public safety” and law enforcement is imperceptible. For example, in Bourgeois v. Peters, 387 F.3d 1303 (11th Cir. 2004), organizers of an annual protest at a military base challenged a police policy requiring all protesters to undergo metal detector searches. The city argued the searches were valid under the special needs exception because they keep protesters and others safe by detecting weapons and other contraband. The court rejected the city's argument. Speaking for the court, Judge Tjoflat explained that “it is difficult to see how public safety could be seen as a governmental interest independent of law enforcement; the two are inextricably intertwined.” Id. at 1312–1313.Google Scholar

Skinner, 489 U.S. at 621, n.5 (quoting Burger, 482 U.S. at 716–17, n.27 (internal quotation marks omitted).Google Scholar

See id. at 650 (Marshall, J., dissenting) (“Most strikingly, the agency's regulations not only do not forbid, but, in fact, appear to invite criminal prosecutors to obtain the blood and urine samples drawn by the [agency] and use them as the basis of criminal investigations and trials.”) (citation omitted).Google Scholar

Id. at 621.Google Scholar

Ferguson, 532 U.S. at 71–72.Google Scholar

Id. at 84.Google Scholar

Va. Code Ann. § 19.2–310.5 (2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cf. Kaye, , “Two Fallacies,” supra note 83, at 191 (“there is plenty of empirical evidence that bigger data bases solve more crimes”) (footnote omitted).Google Scholar

Id. at 203.Google Scholar

Cf. 5 LaFave, , supra note 215, § 10.3(b) at 115 (noting that the police involvement in Griffin was at the request of the probation officer to “provid[e] protection,” and thus was “unobjectionable,” and also observing that the Court “did not have occasion to speak to the limits of police involvement in probationer searches in Griffin, but surely there are limits, as is reflected by the existing body of law [from the lower courts] on that subject”) (footnotes omitted); Burger, 482 U.S. at 717 (explaining that there is no “constitutional significance in the fact that police officers, rather than ‘administrative’ agents, are permitted to conduct the [administrative search]”).Google Scholar

Ferguson, 532 U.S. at 88 (Kennedy, J., concurring in judgment) (explaining that “there was substantial law enforcement involvement in the [search] policy from its inception”).Google Scholar

Id. at 84, n.20.Google Scholar

La. R.S. § 15:607 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ferguson, 532 U.S. at 88 (Kennedy, J., concurring in judgment).Google Scholar

In a similar vein, Edmond left open whether police can establish a roadblock with the “primary purpose of checking licenses or driver sobriety [a permissible purpose under the roadblock cases] and a secondary purpose of interdicting drugs [an impermissible purpose under the roadblock cases].” Edmond, 532 U.S. at 47, n.2.Google Scholar

Ferguson, 532 U.S. at 84, n.21.Google Scholar

People v. Burger, 493 N.E. 2d 926, 930 (N.Y. 1986), rev'd, New York v. Burger, 482 U.S. 691 (1987).Google Scholar

Id. at 929.Google Scholar

Id. at 930 (citation omitted).Google Scholar

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Jones v. Murray, 962 F.2d 302 (4th Cir. 1992) (holding the Virginia DNA collection statute reasonable and rejecting convicted felons' Fourth Amendment challenge); Roe v. Marcotte, 193 F.3d 72 (2d Cir., 1999) (upholding the constitutionality of a Connecticut statute authorizing the DNA testing of convicted sex offenders because the testing was minimally intrusive and advanced the important state interest of promoting safety by identifying convicted sex offenders).Google Scholar

Kaye, , “DNA Sampling on Arrest,” supra note 83, at 487 (footnote omitted).Google Scholar

Kaye, , “Two Fallacies,” supra note 83, at 203.Google Scholar

Kincade, 379 F.3d at 857, n.16 (Reinhardt, J., dissenting). The analogy to fingerprinting is flawed in another sense. “[U]nlike fingerprints, DNA stores and reveals massive amounts of personal, private data about that individual, and the advance of science promises to make stored DNA only more revealing in time. Like DNA, a fingerprint identifies a person, but unlike DNA, a fingerprint says nothing about the person's health, their propensity for particular disease, their race and gender characteristics, and perhaps even their propensity for certain conduct.” Id. at 842 (Gould, J., concurring). See also Rothstein, & Carnahan, , supra note 83, at 156–57 (distinguishing DNA samples from fingerprinting).Google Scholar

Ferguson, 532 U.S. at 81 (quoting Edmond, 531 U.S. at 44).Google Scholar

Id. at 83 (footnote omitted).Google Scholar

Throughout this article, I have endeavored to provide an objective analysis of the Court's Fourth Amendment doctrine. In light of that goal, the article reaches the conclusion that neither Virginia's nor Louisiana's DNA arrestee law satisfies the special needs formula. If, however, the Court were to actually hear a challenge to the taking and testing of an arrestee's DNA, I doubt the Court will strike down the law on Fourth Amendment or any other constitutional grounds. Notwithstanding the result and reasoning of Ferguson, I predict a majority of the Court will be unwilling to invalidate such a statute. A majority of the Court will construct a “Good for This Day and Train Only” theory in order to uphold the search. United States v. Knights, 534 U.S. 112 (2001), is a recent example of this occasionally-used phenomenon on the Court. Knights upheld a warrantless search by police officers of a probationer's home based upon a reasonable suspicion that criminal evidence would be discovered. Knights did not rely on Griffin or the special needs cases, because the search was clearly related to law enforcement purposes and conducted without the involvement or knowledge of probation officials. Knight's holding rests upon what the Court cites as “our general Fourth Amendment approach of'examining the totality of the circumstances.” Id. at 118 (citation omitted). Such a “totality” or “general reasonableness'” model is a standardless formula that permits a majority of the Court to do what it pleases without having to justify its result or reasoning under traditional Fourth Amendment doctrine.Google Scholar