Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T04:21:48.693Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Caring for Elder Parents: A Comparative Evaluation of Family Leave Laws

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2021

Y. Tony Yang  and
Gilbert Gimm
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

The call for family and medical leave reform in the United States was largely the result of sweeping demographic shifts that occurred in the workforce after the 1950s, coupled with an ever-increasing life expectancy and changing social norms concerning the role of women as caretakers. By the early 1990s, the number of women in the workforce had nearly tripled from 1950. During that same period, life expectancy increased by six years for males and seven for females. Meanwhile, the first wave of the Depression-era generation began to reach the age of retirement. In short, the parents of American workers were living longer and retiring in greater numbers while more women, who were more likely to be informal caregivers, decided to join the workforce. As a result, many families with ill or elder parents began to turn to institutional long-term care.

Type
Independent
Information
Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics , Volume 41 , Issue 2 , Summer 2013 , pp. 501 - 513
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics 2013

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Scharlach, A. E. Grosswald, B., “The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993,” Social Service Review 71, no. 2 (September 1997): 335–359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shrestha, L. B., “Life Expectancy in the United States,” Congressional Research Service (August 16, 2006), at 3, available at <http://aging.senate.gov/crs/aging1.pdf> (last visited May 2, 2013).+(last+visited+May+2,+2013).>Google Scholar
See Scharlach, , supra note 1, at 336.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Stone, R. I. Short, P. F., “The Competing Demands of Employment and Informal Caregiving to Disabled Elders,” Medical Care 28, no. 6 (1990): 524–525.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Stone, , supra note 6, at 525.Google Scholar
Stone, R. I. Kemper, P., “Spouses and Children of Disabled Elders: How Large a Constituency for Long-term Care Reform?” The Milbank Quarterly 67, no. 3 (1990): 485–496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Stone, , supra note 7, at 485.Google Scholar
Id., at 503.Google Scholar
Hall, S. Fine, C., “Preparing For The Looming Dementia Crisis,” National Public Radio, available at <http://www.npr.org/2012/11/28/166088836/the-looming-dementia-crisis> (last visited May 2, 2013).+(last+visited+May+2,+2013).>Google Scholar
Clinton, W. J., “Statement on Signing the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993,” The American Presidency Project, retrieved September 18, 2010, available at <http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=46777> (last visited May 2, 2013).+(last+visited+May+2,+2013).>Google Scholar
29 U.S.C. § 2611(2) (2000).Google Scholar
29 U.S.C. § 2611(4) (2000).Google Scholar
29 U.S.C. § 2611(4)(A)(iii) (2000; 29 U.S.C. § 203(x) (1976).Google Scholar
29 U.S.C. § 2612(a)(1) (2000).Google Scholar
29 U.S.C § 2612(a)(1)(C) (2000).Google Scholar
29 U.S.C. § 2611(11) (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
29 U.S.C. § 2612(b)(1) (2000); 29 U.S.C. § 2611(9) (2000).Google Scholar
See, e.g., Hodgens v. General Dynamic Corp., 144 F.3d 151, 164 (1st Cir. 1998).Google Scholar
Cox v. Autozone, Inc., 990 F. Supp. 1369, 1373 (M.D. Ala. 1998).Google Scholar
Bauer v. Dayton-Walther Corp., 910 F.Supp. 306 (E.D. Ky. 1996).Google Scholar
Fioto v. Manhattan Woods Enterprises LLC, 123 F. App'x 26, 28 (2d Cir. 2005).Google Scholar
Waldfogel, J., “Family and Medical Leave: Evidence from the 2000 Surveys,” Monthly Labor Review 124, no. 9 (September 2001): 17–23.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Hour Division. The 2000 surveys are the source of the most current available data on the FMLA conducted by the Department of Labor, although the Department is currently in the process of conducting a new set of surveys. “FMLA Surveys,” available at <http://www.dol.gov/whd/fmla/survey/> (last visited May 2, 2013).+(last+visited+May+2,+2013).>Google Scholar
See Waldfogel, , supra note 24, at 20.Google Scholar
These are California, Connecticut, Hawaii, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Nevada, New Jersey, North Carolina, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, Washington, Wisconsin, and the District of Columbia. National Conference of State Legislatures, “State Family and Medical Leave Laws that Differ from the Federal FMLA,” available at <http://www.ncsl.org/print/employ/fam-medleave.pdf> (last visited May 2, 2013).+(last+visited+May+2,+2013).>Google Scholar
This is categorized by the authors.Google Scholar
Cal. Gov’t Code § 12945.2 (West 1992 & Supp. 1994).Google Scholar
N.J. Rev. Stat. § 43:21–25 (West 2002).Google Scholar
Wash. Rev. Code § 49.86 (2012).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wis. Stat. § 103.10 (2012).Google Scholar
Vt. Stat. Ann. tit. 21 § 470 (West 2012).Google Scholar
Vt. Stat. Ann. tit. 21 § 472a(a)(3) (West 2012).Google Scholar
Conn. Gen. Stat. § 31–51kk-ll (2012).Google Scholar
D.C. Code § 32–501 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Me. Rev. Stat. tit. 26, §§ 843–848 (2012).Google Scholar
Haw. Rev. Stat. § 398–1 (West 2012).Google Scholar
Or. Rev. Stat. § 659A.153,.156 (2012).Google Scholar
Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 149, § 52D(b)(3) (2003).Google Scholar
R.I. Gen. Laws § 28-48-1, 2 (2012).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minn. Stat. §§ 181.940 et seq (2012).Google Scholar
See 820 ILCS 147/1 et seq. (2012); La. Rev. Stat. § 1501.1 (2012); Nev. Rev. Stat. § 392.920 (2012); N.C. Gen. Stat. § 95–28.3 (2012).Google Scholar
Ky. Rev. Stat. § 337.015 (2012).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Sharlach, , supra note 1, at 337.Google Scholar
Doucet, A. Tremblay, D. Lero, D., “Canada,” International Review of Leave Policies and Related Research (Department of Business Innovation and Skills, September 2010), at 65, available at <http://www.leavenetwork.org/fileadmin/Leavenetwork/Annual_reviews/2012_annual_review.pdf> (last visited May 2, 2013).+(last+visited+May+2,+2013).>Google Scholar
Human Resources and Skills Development Canada, “Recent Legislative and Temporary Changes to Employment Insurance,” available at <http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/jobs/ei/reports/mar2011/annex1.shtml> (last visited May 14, 2013).+(last+visited+May+14,+2013).>Google Scholar
Rostgaard, T., “Denmark,” International Review of Leave Policies and Related Research, Department of Business Innovation and Skills, September 2010, at 92.Google Scholar
Social-Og Integrationsministeriet, “Care Leave,” available at <http://www.sm.dk/Temaer/sociale-omraader/%C3%86ldre/doende-og-doedsfald/plejevederlag/Sider/Start.aspx> (last visited May 2, 2013).+(last+visited+May+2,+2013).>Google Scholar
Fagnani, J. Boyer, D., “France,” International Review of Leave Policies and Related Research, Department of Business Innovation and Skills, September 2010, at 112.Google Scholar
Erler, D., “Germany,” International Review of Leave Policies and Related Research, Department of Business Innovation and Skills, September 2010, at 121.Google Scholar
Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales “Social security,” available at <http://www.bmas.de/EN/Our-Topics/Social-Security/start-social-security.html> (last visited May 2, 2013).+(last+visited+May+2,+2013).>Google Scholar
Henneck, R., “Family Policy in the US, Japan, Germany, Italy and France: Parental Leave, Child Benefits/Family Allowances, Child Care, Marriage/Cohabitation, and Divorce,” Council on Contemporary Families, May 2003, available at <http://www.contemporaryfamilies.org/work-family/fampolicy.html> (last visited May 2, 2013).+(last+visited+May+2,+2013).>Google Scholar
Giovannini, D., “Italy,” International Review of Leave Policies and Related Research, Department of Business Innovation and Skills, September 2010, at 154–155.Google Scholar
Ministero del Lavoro e delle Politiche Sociali, “National Fund for Social Policies,” available at <http://www.lavoro.gov.it/Lavoro/md/AreaSociale/FondoNazionale/> (last visited May 2, 2013).+(last+visited+May+2,+2013).>Google Scholar
The Interlinks Project, “National Fund for Vulnerable People Needing Long-term Care,” available at <http://interlinks.euro.centre.org/model/example/NationalFundForVulnerable-PeopleNeedingLTC> (last visited May 14, 2013).+(last+visited+May+14,+2013).>Google Scholar
Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare, “Introduction to the Revised Child Care and Family Leave Law,” at 27, available at <http://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/policy/affairs/dl/05.pdf> (last visited May 2, 2013).+(last+visited+May+2,+2013).>Google Scholar
Groenendijk, H. Keuzenkamp, S., “The Netherlands,” International Review of Leave Policies and Related Research, Department of Business Innovation and Skills, September 2010, at 163–64.Google Scholar
Escobedo, A., “Spain,” International Review of Leave Policies and Related Research, Department of Business Innovation and Skills, September 2010, at 216.Google Scholar
O’Brien, M. Moss, P., “United Kingdom,” International Review of Leave Policies and Related Research, Department of Business Innovation and Skills, September 2010, at 233.Google Scholar
Directgov, “Time Off for Dependants,” available at <http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Employment/Employees/Timeoffandholidays/DG_10026555> (last visited May 2, 2013).+(last+visited+May+2,+2013).>Google Scholar
The Interlinks Project, “Direct Payments for Informal Carers,” available at <http://interlinks.euro.centre.org/model/example/DirectPaymentsForInformalCarers>..>Google Scholar
See Waldfogel, , supra note 24, at 17–20.Google Scholar
Hollo, T. G.,“Evaluating Family and Medical Leave Insurance for Washington State,” Economic Opportunity Institute (May 2012).Google Scholar
Cal. Unemp. Ins. Code § 3301 (West 2002).Google Scholar
Cal. Unemp. Ins. Code §§ 984–85 (West 1978).Google Scholar
N.J. Stat. Ann. § 43:21–39.1 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
N.J. Stat. Ann. § 43:21–46 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See The Interlinks Project, supra note 62.Google Scholar
Interlinks, “Funding for Home Help for Caregivers (Castilla y Leon),” available at <http://interlinks.euro.centre.org/model/example/FundingForHomeHelpForCaregivers_CASTILLAYLEON> (last visited May 14, 2013).+(last+visited+May+14,+2013).>Google Scholar
Canadian Labour Congress, “A Canadian Labour Congress Perspective on Financing the Employment Insurance Program,” available at <http://www.canadianlabour.ca/news-room/statements/financing-employment-insurance> (last visited May 6, 2013).+(last+visited+May+6,+2013).>Google Scholar
Rostgaard, T., “Denmark,” International Review of Leave Policies and Related Research (Department of Business Innovation and Skills, September 2010): At 92.Google Scholar
Campbell, L. Wagner, L., “Governing and Financing of Long-Term Care: National Report Denmark,” European Centre for Social Welfare Policy and Research (March 2010): At 4.Google Scholar
Id., at 52.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
29 U.S.C. § 2612(e) (2000).Google Scholar
29 C.F.R. § 825.302 (1995).Google Scholar
See, e.g., Smith v. Construction Datafax, Inc., 2012 WL 1745600 at *7 (N.D. Ala. 2012).Google Scholar
29 U.S.C. § 2612(b) (2000).Google Scholar
29 C.F.R. § 825.202(b) (1993).Google Scholar
Service Canada, “Employment Insurance Compassionate Care Benefits,” available at <http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/ei/types/compassionate_care.shtml> (last visited May 6, 2013).+(last+visited+May+6,+2013).>Google Scholar
Scharlach, A. E., “Caregiving and Employment: Competing or Complementary Role?” The Gerontologist 34, no. 3 (1994): 378–385; Scharlach, A. E. Gustavson, K. Dal Santo, T. S., “Assistance Received by Employed Caregivers and Their Care Recipients: Who Helps Care Recipients When Caregivers Work Full Time?” The Gerontologist 47, no. 6 (2007): 752–762.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zarit, S. Stephens, M. Townsend, A. Greene, R., “Stress Reduction for Family Caregivers: Effects of Adult Day Care Use,” Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences 53, no. 5 (1998): S267–S277.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, A. Zarit, S. Townsend, A., “Employed Family Caregiver of Cognitively Impaired Elderly: An Examination of Role Strain and Depressive Symptoms,” Aging and Mental Health 6, no. 1 (2002): 55–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunham, C. Dietz, B., “Challenges Experienced by Women Who Are Caregiving for Family Members with Dementia,” Journal of Women and Aging 15, no. 1 (2003): 55–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guberman, N., “Assessment of Family Caregivers: A Practice Perspective,” in Caregiver Assessment: Voices and Views from the Field: Vol. II (San Francisco: Family Caregiver Alliance, National Center on Caregiving, 2006): At 38–57; Stone, R. Short, P., “The Competing Demands of Employment and Informal Caregiving to Disabled Elders,” Medical Care 28, no. 6 (1990): 513–526.Google Scholar
Bullock, K. Crawford, S. Tennstedt, S., “Employment and Caregiving: Exploration of African American Caregivers,” Social Work 48, no. 2 (2003): 150–162; Dautzenberg, M. Philipsen, H. Stevens, F. Tan, F. Venooij-Dassen, M., “The Competing Demands of Paid Work and Parent Care,” Research on Aging 22, no. 2 (2000): 165–187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, J., Hawkins, A., Ferris, M., and Weitzman, M., “Finding an Extra Day a Week: The Positive Influence of Perceived Job Flexibility on Work and Family Balance,” Family Relations 50, no. 1 (2001): 49–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cannuscio, C. Colditz, G. Rimm, E. Berkman, L. Jones, C. Kawachi, I., “Employment Status, Social Ties, and Caregivers’ Mental Health,” Social Science and Medicine 58, no. 7 (2004): 1247–1256; Rosario, P. Morrow-Howell, N. Hinterlong, J., “Role Enhancement or Role Strain: Assessing the Impact of Multiple Productive Roles on Older Caregiver Well-Being,” Research on Aging 26, no. 4 (2004): 413–428.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, C. Colantonio, A. Vernich, L., “Positive Aspects of Caregiving: Rounding Out the Caregiver Experience,” International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 17, no. 2 (2002): 184–188; Boerner, K. Schulz, R. Horowitz, A., “Positive Aspects of Caregiving and Adaptation to Bereavement,” Psychology and Aging 19, no. 4 (2004): 668–675.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amirkhanyan, A. Wolf, D., “Parent Care and the Stress Process: Findings from Panel Data,” Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences 61 B, no. 5 (2006): S248–S255; Cooper, C. Katona, C. Orrell, M. Livingston, G., “Coping Strategies, Anxiety and Depression in Caregivers of People with Alzheimer's Disease,” International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 23, no. 9 (2008): 929–936.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinquart, M. Sorensen, S., “Differences between Caregivers and Non-Caregivers in Psychological Health and Physical Health: A Meta-Analysis,” Psychology and Aging 18, no. 2 (2003): 250–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinquart, M. Sorensen, S., “Correlates of Physical Health of Informal Caregivers: A Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences 62 B, no. 2 (2007): 126–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, C. Araki, S. Neumann, P., “The Association between Caregiver Burden and Caregiver Health-Related Quality of Life in Alzheimer's Disease,” Alzheimer's Disease Association Disorder 15, no. 3 (2001): 129–136; Williams, S. Williams, C. Zimmerman, S. Munn, J. Dobbs, D. Sloane, P., “Emotional and Physical Health of Informal Caregivers of Residents at the End of Life: The Role of Social Support,” Journal of Gerontology: Social Science 63 B, no. 3 (2008): S171–S183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McConaghy, R. Caltabiano, M., “Caring for a Person with Dementia: Exploring Relationships between Perceived Burden, Depression, Coping and Well-Being,” Nursing and Health Sciences 7, no. 2 (2005): 81–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Pinquart, Sorensen, , supra note 99, at 126.Google Scholar
Earle, A. Heymann, J., “Protecting the Health of Employees Caring for Family Members with Special Health Care Needs,” Social Science and Medicine 73, no. 1 (2011): 68–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ray, R. Gornick, J. C. Schmitt, J., “Parental Leave Policies in 21 Countries: Assessing Generosity and Gender Equality,” Center for Economic and Policy Research (June 2009): 1–2.Google Scholar
Id., at 3–4.Google Scholar
“The Argument Against Paid Family Leave,” Newsweek, August 4, 2009.Google Scholar
Lester, G., “A Defense of Paid Family Leave,” Harvard Journal of Law & Gender 28 (Winter 2005): 1–83, at 38–39.Google Scholar
Id. at 39–40.Google Scholar
Boushey, H. Glynn, S. J., “Celebrating the Success of California's Paid Family Leave Act,” Center for American Progress (September 27, 2012) available at <http://www.american-progress.org/issues/labor/news/2012/09/27/39507/celebrat-ing-the-success-of-californias-paid-family-leave-act/> (last visited May 6, 2013). (last visited May 6, 2013).' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Boushey,+H.+Glynn,+S.+J.,+“Celebrating+the+Success+of+California's+Paid+Family+Leave+Act,”+Center+for+American+Progress+(September+27,+2012)+available+at++(last+visited+May+6,+2013).>Google Scholar
See Ray, et al., supra note 98, at 2.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Stone, D. A., “Beyond Moral Hazard: Insurance as Moral Opportunity,” Connecticut Institute of Law Journal 6, no. 1 (1999–2000): 11–46, at 13.Google Scholar
See Boushey, Glynn, , supra note 103.Google Scholar
Morgan, K., “Parental Leave: Pros and Cons,” The Crooked Timber, available at <http://crookedtimber.org/2005/03/29/parental-leave-pros-and-cons/> (last visited May 6, 2013).+(last+visited+May+6,+2013).>Google Scholar
See Lester, , supra note 101, at 45.Google Scholar