Hardeman, R.R., Burgess, D., Murphy, K., Satin, D.J., Nielsen, J., Potter, T.M., Karbeah, J., Zulu-Gillespie, M., Apolinario-Wilcoxon, A., Reif, C., and Cunningham, B.A., “Developing a Medical School Curriculum on Racism: Multidisciplinary, Multiracial Conversations Informed by Public Health Critical Race Praxis,” Ethnicity & Disease (August 9, 2018): 271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Haines, M.R., “Ethnic Differences in Demographic Behavior in the United States Has There Been Convergence?” Historical Methods : A Journal of Quantitative and Interdisciplinary History 36, no. 4 (2003):157–195; W.M. Byrd and L.A. Clayton, An American Health Dilemma: A Medical History or African Americans of Race Beginnings to 1900 (New York: Routledge, 2000).Google Scholar

Krieger, N., “Structural Racism, Health Inequities, and the Two-Edged Sword of Data: Structural Problems Require Structural Solutions,” Frontiers in Public Health 9 (April 15, 2021), available at <https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2021.655447/full> (last visited December 10, 2021); B.D. Smedley, A.Y. Stith, and A.R. Nelson, “Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care,” Institute of Medicine Committee on Understanding and Eliminating Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2003); CDC Health Disparities and Inequalities Report, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Department of Health and Human Services, Healthy People 2020: Improving the Health of Americans (2013).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021);+B.D.+Smedley,+A.Y.+Stith,+and+A.R.+Nelson,+“Unequal+Treatment:+Confronting+Racial+and+Ethnic+Disparities+in+Health+Care,”+Institute+of+Medicine+Committee+on+Understanding+and+Eliminating+Racial+and+Ethnic+Disparities+in+Health+Care+(Washington,+DC:+National+Academies+Press,+2003);+CDC+Health+Disparities+and+Inequalities+Report,+Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention,+US+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services,+Healthy+People+2020:+Improving+the+Health+of+Americans+(2013).>Google Scholar

Arias, E., Tejada-Vera, B., and Ahmad, F., “Provisional Life Expectancy Estimates for January through June 2020,” Report No. 10 (February 2021), available at <https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/vsrr/VSRR10-508.pdf> (last visited December 10, 2021).CrossRef+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

Arias, supra note 4.Google Scholar

Krieger, supra note 2; Khazanchi, R., Evans, C.T., and Marcelin, J.R., “Racism, Not Race, Drives Inequity across the COVID-19 Continuum,” JAMA Network Open 3, no. 9 (2020), available at <https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2770954> (last visited December 10, 2021); M.T. Bassett, “Public Health Addresses Police Violence: A Beginning,” January 2020, available at <https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2019.305435> (last visited December 10, 2021); T.T. Reny and B.J. Newman, “The Opinion-Mobilizing Effect of Social Protest against Police Violence: Evidence from the 2020 George Floyd Protests,” American Political Science Review 1-9 (2021); J. Jee-Lyn García and M.Z. Sharif, “Black Lives Matter: A Commentary on Racism and Public Health,” American Journal of Public Health 105, no. 8 (2015): 27-30.Google ScholarPubMed

Hagopian, A., West, K.M., Ornelas, I.J., Hart, A.N., Hagedorn, J., and Spigner, C., “Adopting an Anti-Racism Public Health Curriculum Competency: The University of Washington Experience,” Public Health Reports 133, no. 4 (2018): 507–513; E. Ufomata, S. Merriam, A. Puri, K. Lupton, D. LeFrancois, D. Jones, A. Nemeth, L.K. Snydman, R. Stark, and C. Spagnoletti, “A Policy Statement of the Society of General Internal Medicine on Tackling Racism in Medical Education: Reflections on the Past and a Call to Action for the Future,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 36, no. 4 (2021): 1077-1081; A.C. Gaudion, “Exploring Race and Racism in the Law School Curriculum: An Administrator’s View on Adopting an Antiracist Curriculum,” Rutgers Race and the Law Review (forthcoming 2021).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Fisella, K. and Sanders, M.R., “Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Quality of Health Care,” Annual Review of Public Health 37 (2016): 373–94.Google Scholar

Matthew, D.B., Just Medicine: A Cure for Racial Inequality in American Health Care (New York University Press, 2015): at 12.Google Scholar

Teitelbaum, J. B., Theiss, J., and Boufides, C.H., “Striving for Health Equity through Medical, Public Health, and Legal Collaboration,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 47, no. S2 (July 12, 2019): 104–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Matthew, supra note 9, at 14.Google Scholar

Dred Scott v. Sanford, 60 U.S. 393, 407-427 (1857), superseded by U.S. Const. amend. XIV.Google Scholar

Id., at 407.Google Scholar

Krieger, supra note 3.Google Scholar

Image 1 of “The Dred Scott Decision: Opinion of Chief Justice Taney,” The Library of Congress, available at <https://www.loc.gov/resource/llst.022/?sp=1> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537, 542-544 (1896), overruled by Brown v. Bd. of Ed., 347 U.S. 483 (1954).Google Scholar

Matthew, supra note 9, at 19-21.Google Scholar

Byrd, W.M. and Clayton, L., “Race, Medicine, and Health Care in the United States: A Historical Survey,” Journal of National Medical Association 93, no. 3 (2001): 205.Google ScholarPubMed

“Study: Higher COVID-19 Mortality Among Black Patients Linked to Unequal Hospital Quality,” Penn Medicine News (June 17, 20201), available at <https://www.pennmedicine.org/news/news-releases/2021/june/higher-covid19-mortality-among-black-patients-linked-to-unequal-hospital-quality> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

Teitelbaum, supra note 10, at 104.Google Scholar

Id.Google Scholar

Id., at 105.Google Scholar

Id.Google Scholar

Matthew, supra note 9, at 27.Google Scholar

Chandra, A., Frankes, M., and Malani, A., “Challenges to Reducing Discrimination and Health Inequity through Existing Civil Rights Laws,” Health Add (Millwood) 36, no. 5 (2017): 1041–1047, available at <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5654529/> (last visited August 30, 2021).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

H.A. Washington, Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present (New York: Harlem Moon Broadway Books, 2006).Google Scholar

Id., at 61-74; Byrd, supra note 18.Google Scholar

Id. (Washington), at 189-190.Google Scholar

Edited by D. Michaels, National Women’s History Museum, “Fannie Lou Hamer,” 2017, available at <https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/fannie-lou-hamer> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

Hoffman, K. M., Trawalter, S., Axt, J.R., and Oliver, M. N., “Racial Bias in Pain Assessment and Treatment Recommendations, and False Beliefs about Biological Differences between Blacks and Whites,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America 113, no. 16 (2016): 4296–4301, available at <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4843483/pdf/pnas.201516047.pdf > (last visited December 10, 2021).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hoffman, supra note 30, at 4297.Google Scholar

Id., at 4298.Google Scholar

Id., at 4300.Google Scholar

Brandt, A.M., “Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study,” Hastings Center Report 1 (1978): 21–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Magner, L.N., Kim, O.J., A History of Medicine, 3rd ed. (Baton Rouge: CRC Press, 2018).Google Scholar

“Remarks by the President in Apology for Study Done in Tuskegee,” The White House Office of the Press Secretary, May 16, 1997, available at <https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/textonly/New/Remarks/Fri/19970516-898.html> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

Alsan, M. and Wanamaker, M., “Tuskegee and the Health of Black Men,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 133, no. 1 (February 2018): 407–55; J. Jaiswal and P.N. Halkitis, “Towards a More Inclusive and Dynamic Understanding of Medical Mistrust Informed by Science,” Behavioral Medicine 45, no. 2 (2019): 79-85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bajaj, S.S. and Stanford, F.C., “Beyond Tuskegee — Vaccine Distrust and Everyday Racism,” New England Journal of Medicine 384, no. 5 (2021): 12; J. Khubchandani and Y. Macias, “COVID-19 Vaccination Hesitancy in Hispanics and African-Americans: A Review and Recommendations for Practice,” Brain, Behavior, & Immunity-Health 100277 (2021); A.M. Jamison, S.C. Quinn, and V.S. Freimuth, “‘You Don’t Trust a Government Vaccine’: Narratives of Institutional Trust and Influenza Vaccination among African American and White Adults,” Social Science & Medicine 221 (2019): 87-94; J.H. Johnson, J.M. Bonds, A.M. Parnell, and C.M. Bright, “Coronavirus Vaccine Distribution: Moving to a Race Conscious Approach for a Racially Disparate Problem,” Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities 4 (May 2021): 1-4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Roberts, K.T., “Law Schools Push to Require Anti-Racism Training and Courses,” ABA (December 14, 2020), available at <https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/publications/human_rights_magazine_home/rbgs-impact-on-civil-rights/law-schools-push/> (last visited December 10, 2021); “From Words to Action: Dickinson Law Course Examines Roots of Systemic Racism,” Penn State News, April 13, 2021, available at <https://news.psu.edu/story/654548/2021/04/13/academics/words-action-dickinson-law-course-examines-roots-systemic-racism> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021);+“From+Words+to+Action:+Dickinson+Law+Course+Examines+Roots+of+Systemic+Racism,”+Penn+State+News,+April+13,+2021,+available+at++(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

Law School Deans Letter to the American Bar Association (July 30, 2021), available at <https://taxprof.typepad.com/files/aba-bias-cultural-awareness-and-anti-racist-practices-education-and-training-letter-7.30.20-final.pdf> (last visited December 10, 2021); “150 Deans Ask ABA to Require Law Schools to Provide Anti-Bias Training to Students,” TaxProf Blog, August 2, 2020, available at <https://taxprof.typepad.com/taxprof_blog/2020/08/150-deans-ask-aba-to-require-law-schools-to-provide-anti-bias-training-to-students.html> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021);+“150+Deans+Ask+ABA+to+Require+Law+Schools+to+Provide+Anti-Bias+Training+to+Students,”+TaxProf+Blog,+August+2,+2020,+available+at++(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

SALT Anti-Racism Statement (Summer 2020), available at <https://www.saltlaw.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/SALT-AntiRacism-Statement-Summer-2020-.pdf> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

CLEA Statement on Anti-Racist Legal Education, April 21, 2021, available at <https://www.cleaweb.org/page-1006700/10336403> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

Caron, P., “ABA Standards Committee Approves Anti-Racism, Bias Training as New Accreditation Standards for Law Schools,” TaxProf Blog (August 17, 2021), available at <https://taxprof.typepad.com/taxprof_blog/2021/08/aba-approves-anti-racism-bias-training-as-new-accreditation-standards-for-law-schools.html> (last visited December 10, 2021); May 2021 Standards Committee Memo on Proposed Changes, Proposed Changes to ABA Law School Accreditation Standards 205, and 206, 303 and 508, and 507, available at <https://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/administrative/legal_education_and_admissions_to_the_bar/council_reports_and_resolutions/may21/21-may-standards-committee-memo-proposed-changes-with-appendix.pdf> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021);+May+2021+Standards+Committee+Memo+on+Proposed+Changes,+Proposed+Changes+to+ABA+Law+School+Accreditation+Standards+205,+and+206,+303+and+508,+and+507,+available+at++(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

White, S. and Ojugbele, O., “Addressing Racial Disparities in Medical Education,” AAMC Curriculum in Context 6, no. 2 (July 2019), available at <https://www.aamc.org/media/37286/download> (last visited December 10, 2021).Google Scholar

Lawrence, E., “In Medical School, Students Seek Robust and Mandatory Anti-racist Training,” Washington Post, November 8, 2020, available at <https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/racism-medical-school-health-disparity/2020/11/06/6608aa7c-1d1f-11eb-90dd-abd0f7086a91_story.html> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

“A New Front against Racism: State and Med Schools to Address Racism in Medicine, Health Care,” Massachusetts Medicaid Society, August 3, 2021, available at <https://hms.harvard.edu/news/new-front-against-racism> (last visited December 10, 2021); S. Weiner, “Medical Schools Overhaul Curricula to Fight Inequities,” AAMC, May 25, 2021, available at <https://www.aamc.org/news-insights/medical-schools-overhaul-curricula-fight-inequities> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021);+S.+Weiner,+“Medical+Schools+Overhaul+Curricula+to+Fight+Inequities,”+AAMC,+May+25,+2021,+available+at++(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

Council on Education for Public Health, Accreditation Criteria: Schools of Public Health & Public Health Programs (October 2016), available at <https://media.ceph.org/documents/2016.Criteria.pdf> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

“Faculty Team Hopes to Galvanize Anti-Racism in Public Health Education,” Michigan Public Health News Center, May 4, 2021, available at <https://sph.umich.edu/news/2021posts/faculty-team-galvanizes-anti-racism-in-public-health-education.html> (last visited June 28, 2021); Hagopian, supra note 6, at 507-513.+(last+visited+June+28,+2021);+Hagopian,+supra+note+6,+at+507-513.>Google Scholar

University of Michigan School of Public Health, supra note 48.Google Scholar

Hagopian, supra note 6, at 507-513.Google Scholar

Cahn, P.S., “How Interprofessional Collaborative Practice Can Help Dismantle Systemic Racism,” Journal of Interprofessional Care 34, no. 4 (2020): 431–434, available at <https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13561820.2020.1790224> (last visited December 10, 2021).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

CoVID Equity Response Collaborative Loyola, available at <https://cercl.org> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

Makhlouf, M., “Addressing Racism through Medical-Legal Partnerships,” Harvard Law Petrie-Flom Center (September 20, 2020), available at <https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2020/09/24/addressing-racism-medical-legal-partnerships/> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

WC4BL National Working Group, “Our Vision and Values,” White Coats for Black Lives, June 25, 2021, available at <https://mcusercontent.com/bb7ba2333fce5d84733da9d9f/files/06680833-ca32-0345-dfa7-28fe51bc563e/WC4BL_Vision_Document_1_.pdf> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

White Coats for Black Lives: Chapter at Loyola University Chicago, Stritch School of Medicine, available at <https://ssom.luc.edu/loyolamsu/studentgroups/whitecoatsforblackliveswc4bl/> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

Bazzoli, G.J., Lee, W., Hsieh, H.M., and Mobley, L.R., “The Effects of Safety Net Hospital Closures and Conversations on Patient travel Distance to Hospital Services,” Health Services Research 47, 1 Pt. 1: (2012): 129–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Paavola, A., “Saving Chicago’s Mercy Hospital: A Timeline of Key Events,” Hospital CFO report, March 26, 2021, available at <https://www.beckershospitalreview.com/finance/saving-chicago-s-mercy-hospital-a-timeline-of-key-events.html> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

Sensoy, O. and Deangelo, R., “‘We Are All for Diversity, but …’: How Faculty Hiring Committees Reproduce Whiteness and Practical Suggestions for How They Can Change,” Harvard Educational Review 87, no. 4 (2017): 566 (Citing Deo, 2015; Gutiérrez y Muhs et al., 2012; Ladson-Billings, 1996; Nast, 1999; Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2014).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Adams, C., “How Trump Ignited the Fight Over Critical Race Theory in Schools,” NBC News, (May 10, 2021), available at <https://www.nbcnews.com/news/nbcblk/how-trump-ignited-fight-over-critical-race-theory-schools-n1266701> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

Kingkade, T., Zadrozny, B., and Collins, B., “Critical Race Theory Battle Invades School Boards with Help from Conservative Groups,” NBC News, June 15, 2021, available at <https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/critical-race-theory-invades-school-boards-help-conservative-groups-n1270794> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar

Camera, L., “Bills Banning Critical Race Theory Advance in States Despite Its Absence in Many Classrooms,” U.S. News, June 23, 2021, available at <https://www.usnews.com/news/education-news/articles/2021-06-23/bills-banning-critical-race-theory-advance-in-states-despite-its-absence-in-many-classrooms> (last visited December 10, 2021).+(last+visited+December+10,+2021).>Google Scholar