Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T22:39:00.992Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Ethical and Legal Relevance to the Criminal Justice System

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2021

Kathryn Soltis ,
Ron Acierno ,
Daniel F. Gros ,
Matthew Yoder  and
Peter W. Tuerk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

New coverage of the recent wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, and the ensuing public education campaigns by the Department of Veterans Affairs and private veterans advocacy groups combine to call the public's attention to the many potential mental health problems associated with traumatic event exposure. Indeed, since 2001, Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) and Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) combat and peacekeeping missions have been characterized by high levels of exposure to acts of extreme violence, with often gruesome effects. Less publically discussed is the fact that a surprisingly large number of United States civilians also report exposure to traumatic events, such as severe interpersonal violence, natural disasters, and serious automobile accidents. In fact, approximately 70% of randomly sampled respondents indicated that they have experienced an incident characterized by significant perceived life threat at some point during their lives.

Type
Symposium
Information
Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics , Volume 42 , Issue 2 , Summer 2014 , pp. 147 - 154
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Hoge, C. W. Castro, C. A. Messer, S. C. McGurk, D. Cotting, D. I. Koffman, R. L., “Combat Duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, Mental Health Problems, and Barriers to Care,” New England Journal of Medicine 351, no. 1 (2004): 13–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breslau, N., “The Epidemiology of Trauma, PTSD, and Other Posttrauma Disorders,” Trauma, Violence, & Abuse Special Issue: Violence and Women's Mental Health: The Pain Unequalled: A Two-Part Special Issue 10, no. 3 (2009): 198–210; Resnick, H. S. Kilpatrick, D. G. Dansky, B. S. Saunders, B. E. Best, C. L., “Prevalence of Civilian Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in a Representative National Sample of Women,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 61, no. 6 (1993): 984–991.Google Scholar
Frueh, B. C. Cusack, K. J. Hiers, T. G. Monogan, S. Cousins, V. C. Cavenaugh, S. D., “Improving Public Mental Health Services for Trauma Victims in South Carolina,” Psychiatry Services 52, no. 6 (2001): 812–814; Grubaugh, A. L. Magruder, K. M. Waldrop, A. E. Elhai, J. D. Knapp, R. G. Frueh, B. C., “Subthreshold PTSD in Primary Care: Prevalence, Psychiatric Disorders, Health Care Use, and Functional Status,” Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 193, no. 10 (2005): 658–664; see Hoge, et al., supra note 1; Hotopf, M. Hull, L. Fear, N. T. et al., “The Health of UK Military Personnel Who Deployed to the 2003 Iraq War: A Cohort Study,” The Lancet 367, no. 9524 (2006): 1731–1741; Hyams, K. C. Wignall, S. Rosewell, R., “War Syndromes and Their Evaluation: From the US Civil War to the Persian Gulf War,” Annals of Internal Medicine 125, no. 5 (1996): 398–405; Kang, H. K. Natelson, B. H. Mahan, C. M. Lee, K. Y. Murphy, F. M., “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome-Like Illness among Gulf War Veterans: A Population-Based Survey of 30,000 Veterans,” American Journal of Epidemiology 157, no. 2 (2003): 141–148; see Resnick, et al., supra note 2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamner, M. B., “The Role of PTSD in Adjudicating Violent Crimes,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 42, no. 2 (2014): 155–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wangelin, B. C. Tuerk, P. W., “PTSD in Active Combat Soldiers: To Treat or Not to Treat,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 42, no. 2 (2014): 161–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomb, D. A., “The Phenomenology of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder,” Psychiatric Clinics of North America 17 (1994): 237–250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 1st ed. (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 1952).Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 2nd ed. (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 1968).Google Scholar
See Tomb (1994), supra note 6.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (APA), Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd ed. (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 1980).Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (APA), Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 1994); Kilpatrick, D. G. Saunders, B. E. Veronen, L. J. Best, C. L. Von, J. M., “Criminal Victimization: Lifetime Prevalence, Reporting to Police, and Psychological Impact,” Crime and Delinquency 33, no. 4 (1987): 479489; Ballenger, J. C. Davidson, J. R. Lecrubier, Y. Nutt, D. J. Marshall, R. D. Nemeroff, C. B. et al., “Consensus Statement Update on Posttraumatic Stress Disorder from the International Consensus Group on Depression and Anxiety,” Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 65, Supp. 1 (2004): 55–62; see Resnick, et al., supra note 2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See APA, supra note 11.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed. (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 2013); Friedman, M. J. Resick, P. A. Bryant, R. A. Brewin, C. R., “Considering PTSD for DSM-5,” Depression and Anxiety 28, no. 9 (2011): 750–769; for a description of PTSD in children, see Schwarz, E. D. Perry, B. D., “The Post-Traumatic Response in Children and Adolescents,” Psychiatric Clinics of North America 17, no. 2 (1994): 311–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, R. C. Berglund, P. B. Demler, O. Jin, R. Merikangas, K. R. Walters, E. E., “Lifetime Prevalence and Age-of-Onset Distributions of DSM-IV Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication,” Archives of General Psychiatry 62 (2005): 593–602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breslau, N., “Epidemiology of Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” in Yehuda, R. Oldham, J. M. Riba, M. B., eds. Psychological Trauma: Review of Psychiatry, Vol. 17, (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, 1998): At 1–29; Breslau, N. Peterson, E. L. Poisson, L. M. Schultz, L. R. Lucia, V. C., “Estimating Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in the Community: Lifetime Perspective and the Impact of Typical Traumatic Events,” Psychological Medicine 34, no. 5 (2004): 889–898.; Kessler, R. C. Sonnega, A. Bromet, E. Hughes, M. Nelson, C. B., “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey,” Archives of General Psychiatry 52, (1995): 1048–1060; see Kessler, et al., (2005), supra note 14.Google Scholar
Helzer, J. E. Robins, L. N. McEvoy, L., “PostTraumatic Stress Disorder in the General Population,” New England Journal of Medicine 317, no. 26 (1987): 16301634.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robins, L. N. Helzer, J. E. Croughan, J. Ratcliff, K. S., “National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule: Its History, Characteristics, and Validity,” Archives of General Psychiatry 38, no. 4 (1981): 381–389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breslau, N. Davis, G. C. Andreski, P. Petersen, E., “Traumatic Events and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in an Urban Population of Young Adults,” Archives of General Psychiatry 48, no. 3 (1991): 216222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Kessler, et al., (2005), supra note 14.Google Scholar
See Breslau, et al., supra note 18; Breslau, N., “Gender Differences in Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” Journal of Gender-Specific Medicine: JGSM: The Official Journal of the Partnership for Women's Health at Columbia 5, no. 1 (2002): 34–40; see Breslau, et al., (2009), supra note 2; Norris, F. H., “Epidemiology of Trauma: Frequency and Impact of Different Potentially Traumatic Events on Different Demographic Events,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 60, no. 3 (1992): 409418.Google Scholar
See Breslau, (2002), supra note 20; see Breslau, (2009), supra note 2; Kessler, et al., (2005), supra note 14; Kilpatrick, D. G. Resnick, H. S., “PTSD Associated with Exposure to Criminal Victimization in Clinical and Community Populations,” in Davidson, J. R. Foa, E. B., eds., Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Review: Recent Research and Future Directions (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, 1993): At 113–143.Google Scholar
See Norris, (1992), supra note 20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kulka, R. A. Schlenger, W. E. Fairbank, J. A. Hough, R. L. Jordan, B. K. Marmar, C. R. Weiss, D. S., The National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study: Tables of Findings and Technical Appendices (New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1990a); Kulka, R. A. Schlenger, W. E. Fairbank, J. A. Hough, R. L. Jordan, B. K. Marmar, C. R. Weiss, D. S., Trauma and the Vietnam War Generation: Report of Findings from the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study (New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1990b). id. (Norris).Google Scholar
See Breslau, (2009), supra note 2; Breslau, et al., (1991), supra note 18; Davidson, J. Smith, R. Kudler, H., “Familial Psychiatric Illness in Chronic Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” Comprehensive Psychiatry 30, no. 4 (1989): 339–345.Google Scholar
Acierno, R. Ruggiero, K. Kilpatrick, D. Resnick, H. Galea, S., “Risk and Protective Factors for Psychopathology among Older Versus Younger Adults Following the 2004 Florida Hurricanes,” American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 14, no. 12 (2006): 1051–1059; see Breslau, (2009), supra note 2; Norris, (1992), supra note 20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dohrenwend, B. P. Turner, J. B. Turse, N. A. Adams, B. G. Koenen, K. C. Marshall, R., “The Psychological Risks of Vietnam for US Veterans: A Revisit with New Data and Methods,” Science 313, no. 5789 (2006): 979–982; Kulka, et al., (1990a, 1990b), supra note 23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seal, K. H. Bertenthal, D. Miner, C. R. Sen, S. Marmar, C., “Bringing the War Back Home: Mental Health Disorders among 103,788 US Veterans Returning from Iraq and Afghanistan Seen at Department of Veterans Affairs Facilities,” Archives of Internal Medicine 167, no. 5 (2007): 476–482.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davidson, J. R. Fairbank, J. A., “The Epidemiology of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder,” Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: DSM-IV and Beyond (American Psychiatric Pub., 1993) at 147–169; Hoge, C. W. Lesikar, S. E. Guevara, R. et al., “Mental Disorders among US Military Personnel in the 1990s: Association with High Levels of Health Care Utilization and Early Military Attrition,” American Journal of Psychiatry 159, no. 9 (2002): 1576–1583; Keane, T. M. Wolfe, J., “Comorbidity in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: An Analysis of Community and Clinical Studies,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 20, no. 21 (1990): 1776–1788; see Kulka, et al., (1990a, 1990b), supra note 23.Google Scholar
See Frueh, et al., (2001), supra note 3; Kang, et al., (2003), supra note 3; Prigerson, H. G. Maciejewski, P. K. Rosenheck, R. A., “Population Attributable Fractions of Psychiatric Disorders and Behavioral Outcomes Associated with Combat Exposure among US Men,” American Journal of Public Health 92, no. 1 (2002): 59–63.Google Scholar
See Hoge, et al., (2004), supra note 1; Hoge, C. W. Auchterlonie, J. L. Milliken, C. S., “Mental Health Problems, Use of Mental Health Services, and Attrition from Military Service after Returning from Deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan,” Journal of the American Medical Association 295, no. 9 (2006): 1023–1032.; Kang, et al., (2003), supra note 3; Seal, et al., (2007), supra note 27.Google Scholar
See, for example, Becker, J. V. Skinner, L. J. Abel, G. G. Axelrod, R. Cichon, J., “Sexual Problems of Sexual Assault Survivors,” Women & Health 9, no. 4 (1984): 5–20; Kilpatrick, D. G. Veronen, L. J. Best, C. L., “Factors Predicting Psychological Distress among Rape Victims,” Trauma and Its Wake 1 (1985): 113–141; Kilpatrick, D. G. Veronen, L. J. Resick, P. A., “Psychological Sequelae to Rape: Assessment and Treatment Strategies,” Behavioral Medicine: Assessment and Treatment Strategies (Springer, 1982): At 473–497.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kilpatrick, D. G. Saunders, B. E. Amick-McMullan, A. Best, C. L. Veronen, L. J. Resnick, H. S., “Victim and Crime Factors Associated with the Development of Crime-Related Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder,” Behavior Therapy 20, no. 2 (1989): 199–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chemtob, C. M. Roitblat, H. L. Hamada, R. S. Carlson, J. G. Twentyman, C. T., “A Cognitive Action Theory of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder,” Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2, no. 3 (1988): 253–275; Foa, E. B. Steketee, G. Rothbaum, B. O., “Behavioral/Cognitive Conceptualizations of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder,” Behavior therapy 20, no. 2 (1989): 155–176; Freedy, J. R. Donkervoet, J. C., Traumatic Stress: An Overview of the Field (New York: Plenum Press, 1995): At 3–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCann, I. L. Sakheim, D. K. Abrahamson, D. J., “Trauma and Victimization: A Model of Psychological Adaptation,” Counseling Psychologist, 16, no. 4 (1988): 531–594; Resick, P. A. Schnicke, M. K., Cognitive Processing Therapy for Sexual Assault Victims: A Treatment Manual (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1993).Google Scholar
Id. See McCann, et al., (1988), supra note 34.Google Scholar
See Resick, Schnicke, , supra note 34.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Yehuda, R. LeDoux, J., “Response Variation Following Trauma: A Translational Neuroscience Approach to Understanding PTSD,” Neuron Review 56, no. 1 (2007): 19–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Kardiner, A., The Traumatic Neuroses of War (New York: Hoeber, 1941); Yehuda, R. Siever, L. J. Teicher, M. H. Levengood, R. A. Gerber, D. K. Schmeidler, J. Yank, R. K., “Plasma Norepinephrine and 3-Methoxy-4-Hydroxyphenylglycol Concentrations and Severity of Depression in Combat Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder,” Biological Psychiatry 44, no. 1 (1998): 56–63.Google Scholar
See, for example, Bromet, E. Sonnega, A. Kessler, R. C., “Risk Factors for DSM-III-R Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Findings from the National Comorbidity Survey,” American Journal of Epidemiology 147, no. 4 (1998): 353–361.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See, for example, Ozer, E. J. Best, S. R. Lipsey, T. L. Weiss, D. S., “Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Symptoms in Adults,” Psychological Bulletin 129, no. 1 (2003) 52–73.; Brewin, C. R. Andrews, B. Valentine, J. D., “Meta-Analysis of Risk Factors for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Traumatized Adults,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 68, no. 5 (2000): 748–766.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beidel, D. C. Frueh, B. C. Uhde, T. W. Wong, N. Mentrikoski, J. M., “Multicomponent Behavioral Treatment for Chronic Combat-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Journal of Anxiety Disorders 25, no. 2 (2011): 224–231; Bradley, R. Greene, J. Russ, E. Dutra, L. Westen, D., “A Multidimensional Meta-Analysis of Psychotherapy for PTSD,” American Journal of Psychiatry 162, no. 2 (2005): 214–227; Cloitre, M., “Effective Psychotherapies for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Review and Critique,” CNS Spectrums 14, Supp. 1 (2009): 32–43; Foa, E. B. Dancu, C. V. Hembree, E. A. Jaycox, L. H. Meadows, E. A. Street, G. P., “A Comparison of Exposure Therapy, Stress Inoculation Training, and Their Combination for Reducing Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Female Assault Victims,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 67, no. 2 (1999): 194–200; Foa, E. B. Hembree, E. A. Rothbaum, B. O., Prolonged Exposure Therapy for PTSD: Emotional Processing of Traumatic Experiences (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); Frueh, B. C. Turner, S. M. Beidel, D. C., “Exposure Therapy for Combat-Related PTSD: A Critical Review,” Clinical Psychology Review 15, no. 8 (1995): 799–817; Powers, M. B. Halpern, J. M. Ferenschak, M. P. Gillihan, S. J. Foa, E. B., “A Meta-Analytic Review of Prolonged Exposure for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” Clinical Psychology Review 30, no. 6 (2010): 635–641; Thorp, S. R., “Implementing Prolonged Exposure in PTSD Clinical Teams (PCTs),” in Eftekhari, A. Crowley, J., eds., Successful Implementation of Prolonged Exposure (PE) Therapy in VHA: A Clinic Guidance Manual (2011); Resick, P. A. Monson, C. M. Gutner, C., “Psychosocial Treatments for PTSD,” in Friedman, M. J. Keane, T. M. Resick, P. A., eds., Handbook of PTSD: Science and Practice (New York: The Guilford Press, 2007): 330–358; Sobel, A. A. Resick, P. A. Rabalais, A. E., “The Effect of Cognitive Processing Therapy on Cognitions: Impact Statement Coding,” Journal of Traumatic Stress 22, no. 3 (2009): 205–211; Stein, D. Ipser, J. C. Seedat, S., “Pharmacotherapy for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD),” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 1 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bisson, J. Andrew, M., “Psychological Treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD),” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 3 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense, VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Post-traumatic Stress (Washington, D.C.: Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense, 2004).Google Scholar
Foa, E. B. Hembree, E. A. Cahill, S. P. Rauch, S. A. M. Riggs, D. S. Feeny, N. C. Yadin, E., “Randomized Trial of Prolonged Exposure for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder with and without Cognitive Restructuring: Outcome at Academic and Community Clinics,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 73, no. 5 (2005): 953–964; Marks, I. Lovell, K. Noshirvani, H. et al., “Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder by Exposure and/or Cognitive Restructuring: A Controlled Study,” Archives of General Psychiatry 55, no. 4 (1998): 317–325; Resick, P. A. Nishith, P. Weaver, T. L. Astin, M. C. Feuer, C. A., “A Comparison of Cognitive-Processing Therapy with Prolonged Exposure and a Waiting Condition for the Treatment of Chronic Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Female Rape Victims,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 70, no. 4 (2002): 867–879.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Bradley, et al., (2005), supra note 44; Cloitre, (2009), supra note 44; Powers, et al., (2010), supra note 44.Google Scholar
Scott, M. Stradling, S., “Client Compliance with Exposure Treatments for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” Journal of Traumatic Stress 10, no. 3 (1997): 523–526; Shalev, A. Freedman, S. Peri, S. Brandes, D. Sahar, T. Orr, S. Pitman, R., “Prospective Study of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Depression Following Trauma,” American Journal of Psychiatry 155, no. 5 (1998): 630–637.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robertson, M. Humphreys, L. Ray, R., “Psychological Treatments for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Recommendations for the Clinician Based on a Review of the Literature,” Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 10, no. 2 (2004): 106–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stein, D. J. Ipser, J. C. Seedat, S., “Pharmacotherapy for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD),” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 1 (2006).Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Foa, E. B. Davidson, J. R. Frances, A., “The Expert Consensus Guideline Series: Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: The Expert Consensus Panel for PTSD,” Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 60, Supp. 16 (1999): 1–75; Ballenger, J. C. Davidson, J. R. Lecrubier, Y. Nutt, D. J. Foa, E. B. Kessler, R. C. et al., “Consensus Statement on Posttraumatic Stress Disorder from the International Consensus Group on Depression and Anxiety,” Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 61, Supp. 5 (2002): 60–66; see Ballenger, et al., (2004), supra note 11.Google Scholar
See Stein, et al., supra note 51.Google Scholar
Sullivan, G. Neria, Y., “Pharmacotherapy of PTSD: Current Status and Controversies,” Psychiatric Annals 39, no. 6 (2009): 342–347.Google Scholar
See Foa, Davidson, Frances, (1999), supra note 54; Ballenger, et al., (2002 and 2004), supra notes 54 and 11.Google Scholar
See Stein, et al., supra note 51.Google Scholar
Barker, M. J. Greenwood, K. M. Jackson, M. Crowe, S. F., “Cognitive Effects of Long-Term Benzodiazepine Use,” CNS Drugs 18, no. 1 (2004): 37–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, R. D. Cárcamo, J. H. Blanco, C. Liebowitz, M., “Trauma-Focused Psychotherapy after a Trial of Medication for Chronic PTSD: Pilot Observations,” American Journal of Psychotherapy 57, no. 3 (2003): 374–383; Otto, M. W. Hinton, D. Korbly, N. B. et al., “Treatment of Pharmacotherapy-Refractory Posttraumatic Stress Disorder among Cambodian Refugees: A Pilot Study of Combination Treatment with Cognitive-Behavior Therapy vs. Sertraline Alone,” Behavior Research and Therapy 41, no. 11 (2003): 1271–1276.Google Scholar
See Stein, et al., supra note 51.Google Scholar