1 Abortion Law Reform Act 2008 (Vic) s 8.

2 Henrietta Cook, Abortion Law Changes Eyed as Dr Mark Hobart Probed, The Age (Nov. 7, 2013), https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/abortion-law-changes-eyed-as-dr-mark-hobart-probed-20131107-2x2rg.html.

3 Mark Hobart, Submission No. 68 to Scrutiny of Acts and Regulations Committee, Parliament of Victoria, Review of the Victorian Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006, June 9, 2011, 1.

4 Susie O'Brien, Controversial Victorian Doctor Who Refused to Refer Women for Abortions Has Defended Himself after an Investigation, Herald Sun (Nov. 11, 2013), http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/victoria/controversial-victorian-doctor-who-refused-to-refer-women-for-abortions-has-defended-himself-after-an-investigation/story-fni0fit3-1226757706941.

5 On October 20, 2014, Dr. Rachel Carling-Jenkins from the Democratic Labour Party introduced the Infant Viability Bill 2014 (Vic) as a private members’ bill into the Victorian Parliament. The bill's title was listed on the Legislative Council's notice paper, and the following long title was incorporated into Hansard: A Bill for an Act to ensure the provision of access to holistic care and support to pregnant women and preborn children so as to promote infant viability, to amend the Abortion Law Reform Act 2008 and Crimes Act 1958, to make consequential amendments to certain other Acts and for other purposes.

The bill was defeated on 25 May 2016. Parliamentary Debates (Hansard) Legislative Council, Fifty-Eight Parliament, First Session, Wednesday 25 May 2016, paras 2405, 2407, 2414.

6 Reproductive Health (Access to Terminations) Act 2013 (Tas).

7 Termination of Pregnancy Law Reform Act 2017 (NT).

8 Abortion Law Reform (Miscellaneous Acts Amendment) Bill 2016 (NSW).

9 Miles Godfrey, Vote to Fully Decriminalise Abortion in NSW Is Lost, The Daily Telegraph (May 10, 2017), http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/vote-to-fully-decriminalise-abortion-in-nsw-is-lost/news-story/cdc32f5dead633e02d4cd8034528f4f8.

10 Oreb, Naomi, Worth the Wait? A Critique of the Abortion Act 2008 (Vic), 17 Journal of Law and Medicine 261, 266 (2009)Google Scholar.

11 Health Practitioner Regulation National Law Act 2009; Medical Board of Australia, Good Medical Practice: A Code of Conduct for Doctors in Australia, Mar. 17, 2014 [hereinafter Good Medical Practice Code].

12 For the terms of reference and membership of the inquiry see Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, Religious Freedom Review, https://www.pmc.gov.au/domestic-policy/religious-freedom-review (last visited Apr. 18, 2018). The Review handed down its final report on May 18, 2018; see https://www.ag.gov.au/RightsAndProtections/HumanRights/Documents/religious-freedom-review-expert-panel-report-2018.pdf.

13 de Costa, Caroline et al. , Abortion Law across Australia—A Review of Nine Jurisdictions, 55 Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 105–11, 105 (2015)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

14 R v. Bourne [1939] 1 KB 687.

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17 Brett, supra note 16, at 25.

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19 Id. at 170.

20 Heath, Mary & Mulligan, Ea, Abortion in the Shadow of the Criminal Law? The Case of South Australia, 37 Adelaide Law Review 41–68 (2016)Google Scholar; Kate Gleeson, Still Keeping Women Out: A Short History of Australian Abortion Law, The Conversation (Jan. 24, 2013), https://theconversation.com/still-keeping-women-out-a-short-history-of-australian-abortion-law-11732.

21 R v. Davidson [1969] VR 667.

22 R v. Wald (1971) 3 DCR (N.S.W.) 25.

23 About Us: What We Stand For, Right to Life Australia, http://www.righttolife.com.au/about (last visited Apr. 18, 2018).

24 See, e.g., Cherish Life Queensland, http://www.cherishlife.org.au (last visited Apr. 18, 2018); Pro Life Victoria, http://www.prolife.org.au/contact (last visited Apr. 18, 2018).

25 Emily's Voice, https://emilysvoice.com/about-emilys-voice (last visited Apr. 18, 2018).

26 Reproductive Choice Australia, http://www.reproductivechoiceaustralia.org.au (last visited Apr. 18, 2018).

27 Children by Choice Association Incorporated, https://www.childrenbychoice.org.au (last visited Apr. 18, 2018).

28 Emily's List, https://www.emilyslist.org.au (last visited Apr. 18, 2018).

29 Kassner, J. & Lefkowitz, D., Conscientious Objection, in Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics 594–601, 594 (Chadwick, Ruth ed., 2nd ed. 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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35 The “sola scriptura” approach, prominently espoused by Martin Luther, posited that the scripture itself was the only authoritative source of God's word: Powell, H. Jefferson, The Original Understanding of Original Intent, 98 Harvard Law Review 885–948, 889–91 (1985)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

36 Secular approaches to freedom of conscience were first adopted in Australia in the military context: Defence Act 1903 (Cth) s 61(2) (compilation as of November 30, 1991).

37 Smith, Steven D., What Does Religion Have to Do with Freedom of Conscience?, 76 University of Colorado Law Review 911–40, 912 (2005)Google Scholar.

38 Parliamentary Research Service, Defence Legislation Amendment Bill 1992, 1 (1992).

39 See, e.g., Health Act 1911 (WA) s 334, stating that “[n]o person … is under a duty … to assist or perform in the carrying out of an abortion.”

40 Miranda Devine, Doctor Risks His Career after Refusing Abortion Referral, Herald Sun (Oct. 5, 2013), http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/opinion/doctor-risks-his-career-after-refusing-abortion-referral/news-story/a37067e66ed4f8d9a07ec9cb6fd28cf5.

41 Hugo Gye, Australian Doctor Could Be Struck Off after Refusing to Carry out Abortion on Woman Who Didn't Want to Have a Girl, Daily Mail (Oct. 8, 2013), http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2449568/Doctor-Mark-Hobart-struck-refusing-abortion.html#ixzz4jWE6Wjny.

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44 Harmon, Shawn H. E., Abortion and Conscientious Objection: Doogan—A Missed Opportunity for an Instructive Rights-Based Analysis, 16 Medical Law International 143–73, 147 (2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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47 Smith, supra note 37, at 916–17.

48 Feldman, supra note 33, at 354.

49 Smith, supra note 37, at 918–19.

50 John Locke, Second Treatise of Government § 3 (C.B. Macpherson ed., Hackett Publishing 1980) (1690). This idea that there is a separation between those matters that are secular and those that are religious can also be traced to the work of John Calvin (the political kingdom and the spiritual kingdom) and Martin Luther (two kingdoms): see Witte, John, That Serpentine Wall of Separation, 101 Michigan Law Review 1869–1907, 1883–84 (2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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52 John Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration (James H. Tully ed., William Popple trans., Hackett Publishing 1983) (1689).

53 Greenawalt, Kent, Religious Toleration and Claims of Conscience, 28 Journal of Law and Politics 91–128, 94 (2013)Google Scholar.

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56 Smith, supra note 37, at 920–21 (arguing that coercion can be an effective means of overcoming claims of conscience).

57 Greenawalt, supra note 53, at 98.

58 The proposed changes to Australian vaccination regimes fall into this category: Child Vaccination: Government Flags Welfare Crackdown, The Australian (Apr. 7, 2015), http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/health/child-vaccination-government-flags-welfare-crackdown/news-story/7f742c6965360e20590c9a6860cfb40c.

59 Smith, supra note 37, at 922–27.

60 Sawicki, supra note 51, at 1408.

61 Smith, supra note 37, at 923.

62 See, e.g., Defence Act 1903 (Cth) s 61CC.

63 See, e.g., Amy J. Shaw, Crisis of Conscience: Conscientious Objection in Canada during the First World War 3 (2009) (explaining that the conscientious objectors to military service in Canada had to establish their active membership of an established religion).

64 Greenawalt, Kent, Refusals of Conscience: What Are They and When Should They Be Accommodated?, 9 Ave Maria Law Review 47–65, 53 (2010)Google Scholar. But see Pellegrino, supra note 34, at 232 (arguing that there are conceptual difficulties with the concept of secular conscience). For an argument that posits that only secular claims of conscience should be respected in the medical field, see Weinstock, Daniel, Conscientious Refusal and Health Professionals: Does Religion Make a Difference, 28 Bioethics 8–15, 12–13 (2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

65 Smith, supra note 37, at 923.

66 This is particularly evident in the context of abortion where arguments in favor of permitting conscientious objection are often based on recognition of the physician's right to freedom of conscience, while those who wish to limit or deny recognition of conscientious objection rely on the woman's rights to life and health: see, e.g., O'Rourke, Anne et al. , Abortion and Conscientious Objection: The New Battleground, 38 Monash Law Review 87–119, 104–06 (2012)Google Scholar; Dickens, Bernard M., Legal Protection and Limits of Conscientious Objection: When Conscientious Objection is Unethical, 28 Medicine and Law 337–47, 338–39, 343 (2009)Google ScholarPubMed.

67 Bertelsen, supra note 45, at 126.

68 Weinstock, supra note 64, at 9.

69 Kassner & Lefkowitz, supra note 29, at 595. See also Matheny Antommaria, Armand H., Conscientious Objection in Clinical Practice: Notice, Informed Consent, Referral, and Emergency Treatment, 9 Ave Maria Law Review 81–99, 82 (2010)Google Scholar.

70 Smith, supra note 37, at 936; see also Pellegrino, supra note 34, at 228.

71 Senate Standing Committee on Constitutional and Legal Affairs Report, Conscientious Objection to Conscripted Military Service 1985 (Cth) 7.

72 Id.

73 Smith, Steven D., The Tenuous Case for Conscience, 10 Roger Williams University Law Review 325–58, 338 (2005)Google Scholar. See also Kassner & Lefkowitz, supra note 29, at 596.

74 Smith, Steven D., The Promise and Perils of Conscience, Brigham Young University Law Review 1057–67, 1064 (2003)Google Scholar.

75 Wardle, Lynn D., Protection of Health-Care Providers’ Rights of Conscience in American Law: Present, Past, and Future, 9 Ave Maria Law Review 1–46, 11 (2010)Google Scholar.

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77 Id. at 172.

78 Wicclair, Mark, Conscientious Objection in Healthcare and Moral Integrity, 26 Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 7–17, 7 (2017)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

79 Senate Standing Committee, supra note 71, at 29–30.

80 Parkinson, Patrick, Accommodating Religious Belief in a Secular Age: The Issue of Conscientious Objection in the Workplace, 34 University of New South Wales Law Journal 281–99, 294–95 (2011)Google Scholar (citations omitted).

81 Harmon, supra note 44, at 160.

82 Sifris, Ronli, Tasmania's Reproductive Health (Access to Terminations) Act 2013: An Analysis of the Conscientious Objection to Abortion and the “Obligation to Refer,” 22 Journal of Law and Medicine 900–14 (2015)Google Scholar.

83 Greenawalt, supra note 53, at 107.

84 Arthur, Christian Fiala & Joyce H., “Dishonourable Disobedience”—Why Refusal to Treat in Reproductive Healthcare is Not Conscientious Objection, 1 Woman—Psychosomatic Gynaecology and Obstetrics 12–23, 20 (2014)Google Scholar.

85 Sifris, supra note 82, at 910.

86 Shaw, Dorothy, Best Practice and Research, 24 Clinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology 633–46, 638–42 (2010)Google Scholar. See also Sifris, Ronli & Belton, Suzanne, Australia: Abortion and Human Rights, 19 Health and Human Rights Journal 209–20, 210 (2017)Google ScholarPubMed.

87 See, e.g., Sifris & Belton, supra note 86.

88 Savulescu, Julian, Conscientious Objection in Medicine, 332 British Medical Journal 294–97, 295 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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94 Fovargue & Neal, supra note 90, at 230 (citations omitted):

95 See, e.g., Greenawalt, supra note 53, at 97.

96 de Costa, Caroline, Abortion Law, Abortion Realities, 15 James Cook University Law Review 6–22, 20–21 (2008)Google Scholar.

97 Sifris, Ronli, The Legal and Factual Status of Abortion in Australia, 38 Alternative Law Journal 108–12, 112 (2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

98 The following statutes enshrine abortion as a crime: Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) ss 82–84; Criminal Code 1899 (Qld) ss 224–26; Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935 (SA) ss 81–82; Criminal Code Act Compilation Act 1913 (WA) s 199 (though this is subject to s 334 of the Health Act 1911 (WA)). See also Sifris, Ronli, A Woman's Right to Choose: Human Rights and Abortion in Australia, in Contemporary Human Rights Issues in Australia 251–273, 251 (Gerber, Paula & Castan, Melissa eds., 2013)Google Scholar.

99 Bernadette Richards & Jennie Louise, Medical Law and Ethics: A Problem-Based Approach 35 (2014).

100 Cook, Rebecca J. & Dickens, Bernard M., Human Rights Dynamics of Abortion Law Reform, 25 Human Rights Quarterly 1–59, 12 (2003)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

101 Id. at 21; de Costa, supra note 96, at 21.

102 Pesce, Andrew, Abortion Laws in Australia: Time for Consistency?, 29 University of New South Wales Law Journal 224–26, 224 (2006)Google Scholar.

103 See, e.g., Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935 (SA) s 82A; see also Sifris, supra note 97, at 110.

104 See, e.g., Health Act 1993 (ACT) pt 6.

105 For more on the place of abortion within the human rights paradigm, see Zampas, Christina & Gher, Jaime M., Abortion as a Human Right—International and Regional Standards, 8 Human Rights Law Review 249–94 (2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

106 New South Wales and Queensland rely on the common law.

107 Health Act 1911 (WA) s 334.

108 Health Act 1993 (ACT) s 84.

109 Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935 (SA) s 82A(5).

110 Id. s 82A(6).

111 Explanatory Memorandum, Abortion Law Reform Bill 2008 (Vic) 3.

112 Victoria, Parliamentary Debates, Legislative Assembly, 19 August 2008, 2954 (Maxine Morand, Minister for Women's Affairs).

113 Reproductive Health (Access to Terminations) Bill 2013 (Tas) pt 2 s 7(2).

114 Reproductive Health (Access to Terminations) Act 2013 (Tas) pt 2 s 7(2).

115 Good Medical Practice Code § 2.4.6, at 7, Mar. 17, 2014.

116 Reproductive Health (Access to Terminations) Act 2013 (Tas) s 6(3) pt 2.

117 Termination of Pregnancy Law Reform Act 2017 (NT) s 11 pt 2.

118 Health Insurance Act 1973 (Cth) s 132A pt 7.

119 Health Insurance Regulations 1975 (Cth) r 29.

120 Id. at rr 29(2)–(3).

121 Wendy Larcombe, Rights and Responsibilities of Conscientious Objectors under the Abortion Law Reform Act 2008 (Vic), Paper presented at ‘W(h)ither Human Rights’: 25th Law and Society Association Australia and New Zealand Conference (December 2010), at 6.

122 Legislative Council Government Administration Committee “A,” Report on Reproductive Health (Access To Terminations) Bill 2013 (Tas) 54–58 (2013).

123 See, e.g., Sifris, supra note 82.

124 Reproductive Health (Access to Terminations) Act 2013 (Tas) s 7.

125 Under the National Law possible sanctions include cautions, the imposition of conditions, fines, and the suspension or cancellation of registration. See Health Practitioner National Law Act 2009 (Qld) s 196. This was adopted in Victoria by the Health Practitioner Regulation National Law (Victoria) Act 2009 (Vic) s 4.

126 Mendelson, Danuta, Decriminalisation of Abortion Performed by Qualified Health Practitioners under the Abortion Law Reform Act 2008 (Vic), 19 Journal of Law and Medicine 651–66, 662 (2012)Google Scholar.

127 Chervenak, Frank A. & McCullough, Laurence C., The Ethics of Direct and Indirect Referral for Termination of Pregnancy, 199 American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 232.e1–e3, 232.el (2008)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

128 Id. at 232.e2.

129 Parkinson, Patrick, Christian Concerns about an Australian Charter of Rights, 15 Australian Journal of Human Rights 83–122, 105 (2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

130 Greg Craven, Denying People Right to Conscience Akin to Fascism, The Age (Sept. 26, 2008), http://www.theage.com.au/news/opinion/denying-people-right-to-conscience-akin-to-fascism/2008/09/25/1222217428407.html?page=fullpage.

131 See, e.g., Larcombe, supra note 121; O'Rourke et al., supra note 3, at 108.

132 Larcombe, supra note 121.

133 Sifris, supra note 82, at 906.

134 See discussion in section titled “What is Conscientious Objection?” above.

135 Morgan, Jenny, Abortion Law Reform: The Importance of Democratic Change, 35 University of New South Wales Law Journal 142–74, 162 (2012)Google Scholar.

136 Id. at 159.

137 Ministry of Health, New South Wales Government, Policy Directive No. PD2005_587, Pregnancy—Framework for Terminations in New South Wales Public Health Organisations § 4.2, at 5 (2005).

138 National Health Service (General Medical Services) Regulation 1992 r 12 (Eng. & Wales).

139 See explanation available at How to Register With a GP Practice, National Health Service, http://www.nhs.uk/NHSEngland/AboutNHSservices/doctors/Pages/NHSGPs.aspx (last visited Jan. 13, 2016).

140 Victorian Law Reform Commission, Law of Abortion: Final Report 113 (2008) (citations omitted).

141 Id. (citing Abortion Services in New Zealand, http://www.abortion.gen.nz/about.html).

142 Hallagan v. Medical Council of New Zealand HC Wellington CIV 2010-485-222, 2 December 2010 at paras. 31–34 (N.Z.).

143 Victorian Law Reform Commission, supra note 140, at 114.

144 Id.

145 Senate Standing Committee, supra note 71, at 18.

146 Id. at 10.

147 Voluntary Euthanasia Bill 2012 (SA) cl 12. This bill failed to garner sufficient parliamentary support. A similar broad exemption can be seen in the short-lived Northern Territory Act, Rights of the Terminally Ill Act 1995 (NT) s 5. See also Voluntary Euthanasia Bill 2010 (WA) (lapsed) cl 5; Voluntary Assisted Dying Bill 2013 (Tas) (failed) cl 31(2)(d); Rights of the Terminally Ill Bill 2013 (NSW) (negatived) cl 5.

148 New South Wales, Parliamentary Debates, Legislative Council, 2 May 2013, 19869 (Cate Faehrmann, Member of Legislative Council).

149 For example, this is the likely effect of the law in Sweden where conscientious objection to abortion is not permitted under the law. See Heino, Anna et al. , Conscientious Objection and Induced Abortion in Europe, 18 European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care 231–33, 232–33 (2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

150 Fiala & Arthur provide an example of this perspective. They argue that refusing to refer for abortion should be deemed to be “dishonourable disobedience” rather than “conscientious objection”: Fiala & Arthur, supra note 84, at 20.

151 For a current copy of the State/Territory Nominated Occupations List detailing occupations deemed to be in shortage, see ANZSCO Occupations, Acacia Immigration Australia, https://www.acacia-au.com/STNOL.php (last updated Aug. 3, 2017).

152 Goodrich, supra note 54, at 123.

153 Schwartz, Martha S., “Conscience Clauses” or “Unconscionable Clauses”: Personal Belief Versus Professional Responsibilities, 6 Yale Journal of Health Policy, Law, and Ethics 269–350, 277 (2006)Google Scholar.

154 Good Medical Practice Code, § 2.3m at 6, Mar. 17, 2014.

155 Id. § 2.4.4, at 6, § 2.4.6, at 7.

156 See the discussion later in this section on the U.K. case of Doogan v. Greater Glasgow Health Board [2013] CSIH 36 (appeal taken from Scot.); Greater Glasgow Health Board v. Doogan [2014] UKSC 68 (appeal taken from Scot.).

157 Health Insurance Act 1973 (Cth) s 132A.

158 Health Insurance Regulations 1975 (Cth) r 29.

159 Id. at rr 29(2)–(3).

160 See, e.g., the text corresponding to note 140 which particularizes the nature of the referral process in the medical context. It is clear from this that referral requires involvement from the original doctor.

161 Davies, John K., Conscientious Refusal and a Doctor's Right to Quit, 29 Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 75–91, 82 (2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

162 Genuis, S.J., Dismembering the Ethical Physician, 82 Postgraduate Medical Journal 233–38, 234 (2006)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

163 Cited in Whitcomb, Erin, A Most Fundamental Freedom of Choice: An International Review of Conscientious Objection to Elective Abortion, 24 St. John's Journal of Legal Commentary 771–809, 794 (2010)Google Scholar (citation omitted).

164 Antommaria, supra note 66, at 85–86. See also Kaczor, Christopher, Conscientious Objection and Health Care: A Reply to Bernard Dickens, 18 Christian Bioethics: Non-Ecumenical Studies in Medical Morality 59–71, 65 (2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

165 Greater Glasgow Health Board v. Doogan [2014] UKSC 68 [38] (appeal taken from Scot.).

166 Doogan v. Greater Glasgow Health Board [2013] CSIH 36 [38] (appeal taken from Scot.).

167 Oderberg, David S., Further Clarity on Cooperation and Morality, 43 Journal of Medical Ethics 1–9, 9 (2016)Google ScholarPubMed.

168 Rowe, Heather J. et al. , Considering Abortion: A 12-Month Audit of Records of Women Contacting a Pregnancy Advisory Service, 190 Medical Journal of Australia 69–72, 71 (2009)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed (Access issues reported were “financial or health problems, geographical isolation, lack of transport or child care, being at school, safety fears, alcohol or drug problems, or language or interpreter concerns.”).

169 Evidence to Legislative Council Sessional Committee Government Administration “A,” Parliament of Tasmania, 3 September 2013, 5 (Glynis Flower, Executive Officer of the Hobart Women's Health Centre).

170 Id. at 2.

171 International Planned Parenthood Federation European Network (IPPF EN) v. Italy, App. No. 87/2012 (European Committee of Social Rights) (2012).

172 World Medical Association, Declaration of Oslo on Therapeutic Abortion, adopted by the 24th World Medical Assembly, Oslo, Norway, Aug. 1970 (amended by the 35th World Medical Assembly, Venice, Italy, Oct. 1983; 57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, Oct. 2006).

173 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, General Comment No. 22: The Right to Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion (Art. 18) at ¶3, U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4 (July 12, 1993).

174 See, e.g., Getting an Abortion, Children by Choice, https://www.childrenbychoice.org.au/forwomen/abortion/howtogetanabortion (last modified Jan. 11, 2018) (“[n]o referral is needed for either a GP or a private clinic for a medication abortion” and that “[n]o referral is needed for a clinic for a surgical abortion.”).

175 See, e.g., Kibsgaard Nordberg, Eva M. et al. , Conscientious Objection to Referrals for Abortion: Pragmatic Solution or Threat to Women's Rights, 15 BMC Medical Ethics 1–9, 1 (2014)Google Scholar.

176 Fiala & Arthur, supra note 84, at 15.